Untitled Flashcards Set

Early Civilizations and the Development of Knowledge

Hydraulic civilizations

• Civilization evolved around rivers/bodies of water (Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Indus-Ganges) and this cities will enter economic activities

• Because this rivers flooded often, there was a surplus of renewed land

• Examples of these civilizations are Egypt, Mesopotamia (West asia along Tigris-Euphrates), China, India

• This freed people from farm work, and lead to specialized labor (artisans, soldiers, priests, nobles, bureaucrats with focus to run an empire) and this lead to surplus and exchange

• These groups of people who need governance - especially due to large scale agriculture systems 

• These agriculture developments also lead to intellectual development:

accounting skills, record keeping, surveying skills (land measurement, geometry, level, angle measuring devices were development), knowledge about nature

• Agriculture & religion: both were dependant on timekeeping to organize worship and production activities and this lead to astronomical observation and calendars

• This all formed the basis for natural philosophy

• Agriculture eventually consisted of a complex network of irrigation systems

Fertile Crescent and “Agricultural Revolution” - Neolithic Period (10,000 BCE-3000BCE)

• Coincides with the last Ice Age 

• Revolution from food-gathering to food-producing

• The rise of pastoral nomadism (herding in grasslands) in habitats suitable for pasture and farming and settled villages (sedentarization - nomadic groups transition to living in one place) 

• Exchange of surplus (creation of villages = trade, and this leads to fortifications)

• Activities adapted to the cycle of plant growth, and calendars were created 

• Pottery and textiles were used for transportation and storing of surplus (goods)

• Ex. Catal Hoyuk (6000-500- BCE): more reproduction because of longer lives, and therefore more manpower for agriculture, there was a material culture, existing defense structure for crops, and social stratification dependent on wealth

Astronomy and Geometry in this Neolithic period (in Europe)

• Large scale monuments that aligned with the stars, and served as calendars

• The Stonehenge built at the end of the Neolithic era (3100-1500 BCE), but was built by a society with traces 

• Geometry came along because with agriculture and surplus/goods and inventories, they needed a counting system, measurement, and a way to write things down: 

• Development of writing (3500 BCE) - a tool for the elite (commerce, administration, calendars, astronomy…)

Development of writing marks the end of the Neolithic period and beginning of Antiquity

Ancient Mesopotamia (8000BCE-2000BCE)

• Located in Fertile Crescent (the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers facilitated agriculture production and development of cities)

• Formation of important cities (Uruk and Babylon, and states like Assyrian empires), and provided organized religion, centralized governments, social hierarchies, trade networks

• A political structure was required to maintain Irrigation canal and systems

• As political systems became more defined: public works, roads, tax, etc. 

• Ziggurat (of Ur), example of religion and political powers: sun dried and baked brick, massive temple and castle, dedicated to a deity, served as fortification, saw the mingling of priests (religious holidays) and astronomers (calendars)

• Astronomy, astrology, predications, religion all connect at the time

• Development of Writing and Law (The Stele (Code) of Hammurabi - Babylonian legal text, basis of irrigation laws)

• Irrigation played a KEY role in the economic and political life, building systems presented both technical and organizational problems (sediments, constant cleaning)

• Types of irrigation: basin and perennial irrigation, and devised various machines and solved complex problems EX the Noria - a small water waterwheel

Ancient Egypt

• Civilizations developed around the Nile

• Economic developments: gold mining (powerhouse), public and private property ownership, sophisticated tax collecting system (backbone of growing bureaucracy)

• Formed a sophisticated calendar organized around the regularity of floods

• Developments in Practical Mathematics: had an understanding of Pi, triangles, area, and Astronomy: star catalogs, cycles in a year (365 days solar calendar), ‘Book of Nat’ (sky goddess), star clock

• Environmental adaptations and controlling: calendars organized predictable flood periods, which left behind rich soil

• Surveying/construction instruments - building of pyramids: seasonal workers, took decades, limestone with marble covering top, aligned with stars

Egyptian Medicine

• Intertwined with religion

• Had a great understanding of anatomy because of Modification: heart is the ‘central’ organ of the body, everything went through the heart

• Pregnancy and contraception

• Was very practical: surgical was performed with tools

Ancient China (2070 to 214 BCE)

• Two major periods: Ancient and Imperial

• Ancient: Zhou Dynasty (1046-221 BCE)

• Longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, classical Chinese philosophy foundation, powerhouse of Iron. Involved water control projects: canals and routes (Silk route) for trade, irrigation and agriculture innovations (iron plowshare, natural fertilizer, collar harness). The Hundred Schools of Thought of Chinese Philosophy: ideas about the good and bad of nature, yin and yang. 

• Growth of commerce and manufacture

• Imperial: Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE)

• Involved centralization, unified systems of weights and measures, standardized forms of written characters, roads to unify (armies, commerce), defense walls, collections of taxes, government monopoly over industries (mining, salt)

• Classical bureaucratic culture: mastered: war, poetry, agriculture, math…, complex system established gradually, great wall began

• Imperial: Han Dynasty (202 BCE -221 CE)

• Development of massive iron production: prosperous period, PAPER is invented, bureaucratic state exams, navigation/commerce in Southeast Asia

• Traditional Medicine: treaties written 

Logic, Form, and Matter: Ancient Greece and Rome

Ancient Greece (800 BCE -100 CE)

Hellenic Civilization (800-323 BCE): Archaic Period (800-480 BCE)

• Development of independent states: competition in athletics, cultural superiority, intellect, political debates, work done by slaves. 

• FACILITATION OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY WITH CITY STATES: natural philosophy in ancient greek city states did not operate on scientific methods

• Presocrates: 

  • Natural philosophy: why in Greece? Maybe due to cultural diversity and competition between city states (who had the best poets, playwrights, philosophy…) and this lead to debate culture and due to slave work, the elite had time on their hands to do these things

  • The work of the gods wasn’t everything: philosophers asked questions

  • The Ionians (6th century BCE) - first group of early philosophers - no experimentation of scientific method but used observation, they asked: what is the world made of?

    • Thales of Miletus (matter made from water)

    • Anaximander of Miletus - student of Thales (fire as element)

    • Anaximenes (air as element)

• The Atomists (5th century BCE)

• Leucippus of Miletus (small particles, moving randomly in an infinite void)

• The pythagoreans 

  • Pythagoras - Philosopher, mathematician, mythicist…part legend 

  • Conception of the universe based on numbers, universe is composed of terrestrial sphere (Uranos - least perfect), sphere of moving bodies (Cosmos), home of the Gods (Olympos - most perfect)

  • Considered music a science of beauty and harmony, influencing Medieval and Roman

• The Problem of Change (5th BCE) - how can the world be stable (elements) but change? Can our experiences of the world be trusted?

  • Heraclitus (everything is in the state of flux)

  • Parmenides (all change is logically impossible, an illusion)

  • Zeno (proof against the possibility of change)

Hellenic Civilization (800-323 BCE): Classical Period

• Socrates

  • (Real world = realm of the ideal, nothing in the material world is perfect)

  • Socratic method: series of questions guiding thoughts

  • Selfless dedication to the truth, believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the well-being society

• Plato (student of Socrates)

  • Founder of the academy (385 BCE) - first institution of higher learning in the Western World, less structures that a modern college/university, became a center for scientific research, was the vocal point for education for 800 years

  • Plato borrows ideas from Socrates (who left no written material)

  • But disdained the utility of knowledge

  • Distinction between Ideas (realm of forms: perfect) and Materials (realm of material is imperfect); observation and true knowledge do not link

  • Geometrical principles: used with elements, used letters instead of numbers

  • To reveal the truth you have to go to the realm of ideas, and the solution to this is education

  • Plato’s theories leave room for rational god, order from chaos: order and rationality in the cosmos can be explained by divine craftsmanship (Demiurge) - early Christian loved this. 

  • His ideas survived after the Roman Empire

• Aristotle (student of Plato)

  • Founded the Lyceum - held lessons here and would also lecture on the institution grounds for the public (was denied head of Academy) 

  • Made many contributions: logic, physics, cosmology, psychology, natural history, anatomy, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetic

  • Refuses Plato’s distinction between the realm of ideas and material, and is more interested in the material world

  • Believed our intellect could only be applied to what we observed: and he set out to create a complete system of natural philosophy

  • The Cosmos: the universe is eternal and perfect (no changes), he separates astronomy (heavens) and physics (earth) - this will influence natural history for more than a 1000 years (till renaissance)

  • Classification system: wanted to provide a complete description of natural objects, verify knowledge to satisfy the demands of proof (necessary to convince elite)

  • Worked on biological/botany classification (father of biology)

  • Tutored Alexander the Great (king of Macedonia), was later patroned by him allowing Aristotle to start the Lyceum

• Hippocrates

  • Creation of basic medical principles still used today

  • Based on a concept or regimen and balance: regarded illness and disease as natural (not supernatural but human body or lifestyle) and provided treatment with material solutions (drugs, diet, exercise)

  • Based around 4 humours (fluids): blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm - treatments proposed based on imbalance of humours (doctors would hold long interviews with patients to determine their routines/imbalances in lifestyle and thus illness

Hellenistic Civilization (323 BCE -100CE)  - beginning of this period was near the end of ancient egypt (crossover of Greek and Egyptian knowledge)

• Expansion of Greek culture and learning (language, art, architecture, and literature spread throughout the Middle East)

• State-patronized science

• 320 BCE Alexander the Great’s empire crumbled but then Greek spread, broke into separate states

• New scientific culture arose (roots form Egypt - state support for practical science and greek individual goals for science combined)

• Different regional powers arrived: egypt rules by Greek general

• The Musaeum of Alexandria founded in Egypt

  • Shift from education in Athens (Academy, Lyceum) 

  • Wealthy would sponsor (patronage) philosophers and academics

  • Research institution, library (collection of Greek texts) lecture halls, dissection studio, gardens, zoo, observatory. 

  • Greek knowledge but also science from around the world

• Herophilus (through dissection made accurate description of anatomy - didn’t know what to do with uterus) - sponsored by Museum

• Euclid (Geometry and writes important treaties: “The Elements” - used as textbooks till the 19th century, use of systematic presentation of truth, have to have a logical demonstration, steps)

• Historians: Thucydides (history, chronicle approach to history) & Herodotus (fantasy’s)

Ancient Rome

Roman Republic (509-27 BCE)

• Roman expansion into Italy, Macedonia, 

• Macedonia becomes a Roman province

• 30 BCE Annexation (conquest) of Egypt (Alexandria) by Romans - Museum was preserved 

• Expansion of Rome caused contact with Greek culture

  • Romans adapted Greek natural philosophy but did not develop their own

  • Continuation of Greek Natural Philosophy (mainly Hellenistic period as Greek texts were preserved in Museum)

• Roman architecture and engineering introduced roads (commerce, military), aqueducts, arches, vaults, domes, roman concrete (hydraulic cement)

• Roman philosophy focused on practicality (machines, plants, animals, medicine)

Roman Empire (27-476 BCE)

• Byzantium (an ancient Greek colony) would be site of “New Rome” in 330 CE (Constantinople as capital city)

• Ptolemy (100-170 CE)

  • Astrology, astronomy, geography

  • “The Almagest”: to discover a combination of uniform circular motion that can account for the observed positions of the planets (essentially an astronomical model…used for navigation later)

  • To obtain an accurate quantitative forecasts of future planetary positions

  • “Geographia”: map projection and Atlas - became a standard tool for astronomy

• Galen (129 -210 CE)

  • Creates a summary of medicine knowledge

  • Disease classification (upgrade to Hippocratic):

  • Aimed to determine the purpose of each organ and structure in the body

  • The four humours form the tissues, tissues form the organs, organs make up the body

  • Disease can be connected to a disequilibrium among the humours or with a specific state of an organ

  • One of the first to pay attention to nervous system

  • Physiological system

• Galen and Ptolemy were significant conduits for the transmission of Greek philosophy to scholar after the fall of Rome

• Christianity became the official religion of the empire in 392, and eventually there was a decline of interest in Greek natural philosophy

• Chrisitanity and natural philosophy had a difficult relationship because it was the contemplation of god vs the study of nature, but although Greek philosophers were pagan, they had literacy and book-keeping skills which the Church needed

• What remained was mainly Hippocrates and Galen on medicine, parts of Euclid

• 476 CE: Dissolution of the Empire

Golden Age of Islamic Science

Decline and fall of Roman EMpire

• Starting in 4th century CE, empire started to experience societal and institutional instability (due to military exertion, failures of leadership, population movement, agriculture)

• Europe was now fragmented and this allowed for turmoil and the rise of new values

• In 395 CE, empire separated into two entities: Western and Eastern

• Western: collapsed in 476 CE, Greco-Roman traditions survives in fragments (Plato)

• Declination of natural philosophy in Western world, and was replaced by theology

Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)

• Stays up for another 1000 years longer in East after the West falls

• Pursuit of Greco-Roman traditions, plays a role in preserving natural philosophy through education, however there were few innovations except for military technology (Greek Fire)

• Strong links between Byzantine Empire and Islamic science (instead of preserving Greek science for sake of education, Arabic Natural Philosophy will translate, comment, change, and debunk Greek)

• Islam is the official religion governing different populations (Arabic peninsula up to Portugal)

The Rise of Islam (610-1400s)

• Rise of Islam began with the void created by the collapse of Rome creating turmoil: territorial conflicts, cultural and religious differences and therefore independent states emerged

• Muhammad then began his efforts to convert the people of Arabia to religion of Islam…by 632 most of the Arabian Peninsula converted

• Islamic Empire spread spanned throughout Spain, Northern Africa, Arabia, Persia

• By capturing many of the most important centers of learning in the Middle East (Alexandria), Islamic scholars had control of intellectual resources

• Islamic scholarship grew: translating and integrating Greco-Roman philosophies, and a high level of research and critical analysis developed

• Q’ran (the holy book of Islam) which called for all faithful to read it, resulted in a push toward literacy and the promotion of Arabic as a unifying languages AND a positive attitude words the study of nature (this contrasted Christianity in which the Bible’s information was delivered by a priest and there was no questioning of God)

• Link between Islam (West) and China (Astronomy), India (Mathematics), and Hellenized culture, creating ties of personal contact, trade (silk, ivory, spices) and intellectual exchange along Silk Road and other routes (result of Pilgrimage)

Islamic Golden Age (beginning in 700s until 1200 at fall of Baghdad)

• Emissaries sent to Byzantium to collect Greek and Syriac texts, and Indian and Hebrew manuscripts

• Great age of translation and commentaries: Greek texts into Arabic, translation and commentaries took place around the mosque: places of worship but also attached to schools (madrasa) and libraries

• Main period of translation of Greek works into Arabic was during Abbasid Rule (750-1258)

• The House of Wisdom in 832, founded in Baghdad (the city often associate with this age, largest city in the world in 10th century, a sophisticated metropolis, commercial routes) became new public academy and intellectual center

• Had professional translators hired by state: Hunein (809-873) an Arab Christian will work a group of translators to translate books of philosophy (Greek and Persian), many subjected but remembered mostly for medicine textbook (Galen)

• By 1000 CE - almost the entire Greek corpus had been translated

• Education system: Madrasa - translation for school, 10th century Maktab (elementary school), 11th century Nizamiyyah (higher education Persia)

• All this was helped by the introduction of paper from China in 8th century

• Commentary, criticism and annotation of Greek texts during/after translation occurred in mosques. Islamic scholars would take Greek ideas, make their own observations and create new instruments/techniques/products to depart from Greek natural knowledge 

Examples of Innovations, Contributions, and Expansions of Greek knowledge

• Book of optics (1011-1021) by Alhazen, contradicted Greek theories of seeing and involved work about optic nerves (expand on Galen’s nervous system research)

• Soap, coffee, scientific instruments

• Alchemy by Islamic scholars contributed to modern chemistry - expansion of Artistotelian and Platonic ideas of matter

• Astrolabe: astronomical instruments based on the projection of the celestial sphere onto its plane, served to measure the positions and altitude of celestial bodies, used for timekeeping (invented by Greeks; passed to Islamic world in 8/9th centuries and thence to western Europe in late 10th), Islamic interest stems from religious (Ramadan? Periods? Festivals?), astrological and mathematical concerns

• Craft skills: glass and metal working

• Agriculture and botanic advances

• The earliest known Islamic hospital was built in 805 in Baghdad (Islamic scholars educated as physicians and held high posts in government and court) 

• Rhazes (854-925) involved experimental medicine influenced by humoral theories:

• He worked on infectious disease such as smallpox, measles, and meningitis (importance of public hygiene)

• He was a proliferant writer (Al-Hawi - The Comprehensive Book of Medicine, criticizes Galen - his own experiments suggest oiliness/inflammability and sulphurousness/salinity, and pulmonary circulation)

China: The Song Dynasty (960-1279)

• China’s “Age of Invention”

• Centralization (Silk road formed strong connections to Middle East) and a strong emperor and bureaucratic (top down system, civil servants, imperial states present in everything)

• Institutionalization of Chinese Medicine: government funded education of physicians, and the Imperial Medical College - Arabic words borrowed from Chinese

• Chinese astrology: used to predict behavior

• Astronomy: astronomical clock (1092) and the Imperial Board/Bureau of Astronomy, cared more about data than theory (catalogs, charts, comets, sunspot, weather)

• Applied Mathematics

• Cartography

• Hydraulic and wind engineering (canal lock system, windmills (were horizontal, from arabic world) replacing animal power)

• Lots of goods: state run entrepreneurs - ceramics and porcelain

• The Silk industry -  the spinning wheel and water-powered reeling machines

• Herbal drug trade (Chinese to Arabic)

• Paper making and different forms of printing - paper money for the first time, began with black printing, paper was bamboo and bark, became part of a larger education system

• Iron production: 125 thousand tons of iron per year

• Gunpowder - first complete recipe  

Medieval Society in Europe

Early Middle Ages (500-1100)

While science and technology was advancing in the Middle East (Islamic Empire) and due to connections to the Byzantine Empire (remained standing in the West)...(400s)

• Waves of invasion after the fall of Rome disrupted life in Europe (texts and education institutions destroyed or scattered (west), society went from a pursuit of knowledge/empire to survival).

• Best and brightest minds were gathered by the Church. Christian theology had to deal with the physical world (astronomy for calendars, care for the ill).

• Fragments of the Roman Empire remained and there was a tentative decentralization of Europe in the early middle ages (500s)

Frankish Kingdom/Francia (481-843 CE) - broken apart after the death of Charlemange

• Involved the alliance between Church and state

• Struggle between those inclined to intellectual activities and those who favored a mystical approach, Catholic church established itself as the authority over intellectual as well as spiritual concerns: the church controlled the separation of the spiritual/mystical and natural/rational) 

• Utility of natural knowledge (that was unproblematic for Islamic scholars) was a difficult question for Europeans (at first)

• Many theologians (those who studied religious reargued that the study of the natural world at best was irrelevant and at worst impeded one’s hope of salvation

• Baptism of Clovis?

Charlemagne (first Holy Roman emperor - reclaiming the “glory of Rome” in Medieval Europe)

• Ruled the short-lived Carolingian Empire (768-814) 

• His drive to build a new European empire - change people's attitudes about future (was pessimistic at this time ‘past was better than preset’)

• Worked to establish a uniform system of law, organized the military, improved the churches, and created public works and placed education at the heart of his reforms, attracting Europe’s foremost scholars to his court 

• He was committed to reestablishing a school system and making education more accessible to the public (under the Church) - territorial expansions and conversion of people to Christianity

• Schools were attached to cathedrals (religion and education were intertwined)

• Goal to make population literate

Monasticism

• Christianity was the unifying factor after the fall of the Roman Empire

• Ideology of conservation

• Monasteries: one of the first institutes in the Catholic church, everything is done for and by the monasteries, 

• Monks (scribes) copied Bible and commentaries and letters of early Church Father by hands - no printing or paper - but parchment from animal skin, it was a craft and the texts were illustrated richly 

• Process involved copyists, illuminates, page makers, book binders (manuscript producing was a LONG process)

• In the Early Middle Ages, only certain parts of the Greek and Roman teaching were available in Europe - mainly Plato (others were collected by Islamic scholars)

• Alcuin (worked for Charlemange - Minister of education) created curriculums based on classical training  and Chrisitan theology - based on 7 liberal arts (foundations of education in the Western World)

• He also helped Charlemange to establish cathedral/monastery schools.

• Also: Gerbert, a most gifted students of Charlemagne's reformed schools (patroned by Otto III of Saxony), was involved in the efforts to find and translate Greek/Arabic natural philosophy texts into Latin

• When Gerbert became pope, he set the tone for the whole Church: raising the profile of natural philosophy and reinforcing the intellectual side of theology

Music and Technological Innovations

• Music was an integral part of expression in Catholicism, and a part of the Liberal Arts (science of harmony and beauty since Ancient Greece) but also a branch of Mathematics

• Neumes (Melody writing, not rhythm) began in the 9th century

• First types of music are religious…700s: Gregorian Chant (monophonic), 1300s: Polyphony, Sacred and Profane music (for court, ex. Messe de Nostre Dame)

• Agriculture innovations allowed for food surplus and growth of cities (later) Middle Ages; the manorial system (land ownership/landlords)

  • Heavy plow: communal farming

  • Horses: greater distances (villages)

  • Three-field rotation: improved diet

• Waterwheels and windmills (were already used in China) replaces animal power 

• Stirrup (from China) and armour/equipment - main reason for creation of the knightly class (replacing soldier-peasant) and this equipment was paid for by local lord

• Paper (brought from Arab from China in 1000) manufactured in Europe by 1189 - replaced animal skin which was costly and time-consuming to make…now used old clothes with broken down fibers

Feudal System (400s-1100s)

• Dominant social, economic, political system in Medieval Europe…the social hierarchy was established based on local administrative control and distribution of land into units (fiefs)

• Nobility (landlords) held land for the Crown while vassals were given this land along with military protection. Peasants worked on their lord’s land and give him homage, labour, and share of produce in exchange for military protections

Late Middle Ages (1110-1450)

Urban Revival  (1000s) - a Cultural and Economic revival

• Military struggle (first) against Islamic expansion, then for control of Jerusalem/Holy land 

• External threats to Latin Christendom, led Christian to be called together for the First Crusade in 1095 (Europe had now entered a period of stability); for the Church there was a possibility of controlling the Holy Land, conversions and striking a blow against other faiths

• The first three Crusades: 1096-9, 1147-9, 1189-92; had some success from their pov because Jerusalem fell to Christian forces in 1099, but this European hold of the Holy Land was short-lived

• Expansion of commerce (Revival of Trade) in early 1100s, including the development of new economic centers (in Venice in the South, Bruges, and Ghent), and fairs (Champagne) - increased affluence (wealth)

• New commercial routes and products (especially from Venice in the South) and (North - Bruges and Ghent, there was cloth and garment making)

• All these expansions lead to the trading of goods AND ideas

• Fall of Constantinople (and therefore fall of the Byzantine Empire in the west) in 1400s brought manuscripts and a knowledge of the Greek to Western Europe

• What Europeans gained from Crusades was renewed contact with wider world: natural philosophy (in a sense) returned to the Latin West because its people discovered a craving for spices, silk, fine china, ivory, perfume, and exotic luxury items (many came from Asia along the Silk Road and through Middle East)

• Cathedrals (part of an expansion of Gothic Architecture) were a symbol of growth/wealth of medieval cities (involved the Roman Arch)

• Cathedrals: Roman arch - Gothic Arch (light, stained glass, images/stories), Romanesque Arch, batruses (armor outside of building), they were the work of a city

• Urban population increased and there were more stable economic and social stability: new social organization: rise of merchant class, and a new class of professionals (doctors) and this new urban population could support education was further supported (university expansion) and scholarship was considered leisure 

Universities in the Middle Ages and Age of Translation

• Universities were fueled by contact with the Middle East

• European scholars learned about the advanced state of Arabic scholarship and collections of Greek texts in the Islamic world at the time fo the first Crusade (study in mathematics, astronomy, medicine exceeded European knowledge) and eagerly sought out Arabic manuscripts to translate into Latin

• Copies of Arabic work were brought to Europe by Crusaders^...peaking interest of Western scholars and texts were collected from Spain (still under Islamic rule)

• Spanish scholars translated Arabic works into Hebrew and Latin while other Western scholars went to spain, learned Arabic works and took translations back to Western Europe 

• Universities legitimized Natural Philosophy…12th century Natural Philosophers favored plato’s idealism

• Universities were considered a guilt (association of people with similar interests/skills between students and teachers (master and apprentice)

• University of Bologna, Italy (1150)

• University of Paris (1200)

  • 4 faculty/guilds: 1 undergraduate faculty of liberal arts (general) and 3 graduate faculties (law, medicine - Galen, and Hippocratic, and theology)

• University of Oxford (1220)

• Creation of universities - provided a place for scholar to live and work: students were not bound by land ownership, they drank a lot, spoke Latin themselves, and also had privileges:

• Chartes: privileges within Universities: Students were exempt from kings courts and instead trailed by Catholic church (caused debates between State officials and Universities)

• These Charters attracted people from all over: degrees were re organized, people traveled to study and teach

• Became centers of intellectual debate and the repositories of manuscripts

• The literate university-trained students were vital in training the growing managerial class, and held powerful positions in Church (literate clergymen) and government bureaucracies

Universities and the Church

• In 1300s Aristotle (and Galen) was translate into, shaping notions of universities

• Aristotle is more problematic than Plato for he was less idealistic: an eternal universe, deterministic universe (all events are determined by previously existing causes) with no room for the intervention of the prime mover, form and matter cannot exist separately, allegations of pantheism (worship of multiple gods)

• But, students loved him

• Condemnations of 1277: Threat of Arestotelian thought to Christian truth

  • Stephen Tempier (Bishop of Paris) was informed of heresy (beliefs contradictory to Christian orthodox doctrine) and was ordered to examine where this came from

  • Aristotelian texts were banned because many of his theories contradicted the bible

  • Universities weren't fully controlled by the church and were still able to discuss the primacy of faith (these ideas stemmed from Aristotle)

  • Some scholastic (intellectualists in Latin Church, such as Thomas Aquinas) natural philosophers praised and presented (while filling in with own ideas) Aristotle’s works

• Students loved him, and the banning of his texts just made him more popular

The investigative side of natural philosophy, philosophy, and religion

*Keep in mind that philosophy from Arabic texts affected every practical application of science and technology (engineering, architecture, medicine, etc.)

• Changed from lecturing to debates: and this expanded knowledge of what could/should be taught

• Growing number of alchemists and astrologers

• Some were interested in the ability of philosophy/Greek intellectual tradition to train the mind and provide ways of gaining certain knowledge…

• Spread of practical skills among engineers, masons, smiths, navigators, and healers (overshadowed for they were rarely part of the intellectual class/and few written records, but proof is construction of cathedral and practice of midwifery)

• Roger Bacon

• Attracted to investigate side of natural philosophy (favoured the utility of it), began to copy the practical approach of many of the Arabic sources

• Studied both at Oxford and Paris, later joined Franciscan Order

• Argued that the comprehension of nature would aid Christianity 

• Supported the idea of experiment as a method of discovering things about nature

• He was imprisoned for Heresy in 1277

• Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274)  - greatest figure of intellectual stream (scholastic in Latin Church) 

  • Supported philosophy and the relation of it with religion -

  • Faith and authority of God were primary, but in some areas that are not determined by revelation, we have natural philosophy to understand the work of God in nature

  • God has given us both science (philosophy) and religion and therefore than can be no true conflict between them

  • Aquinas’s work was situated within a serious scholarly debate about the place of philosophy (Aristotle’s work in particular) in the intellectual areas

Other inventions/publishing of the Middle Ages

• Book of secrets: book of medieval magic referring to experiments (alchemy/chemistry?), it provided a  link between magic and natural philosophy (studies of an unknown world)

Black Death (1350)

• The plague coincided with the Hundred Years War (France vs English), and the battle itself wiped out a significant portion of France’s nobility and Enlgand lost land

• This lead to the central authority of the church slitting

• The Plague began in China (1330s) and was carried by traders to the Black Sea, where Italian merchants, saloirs, and rats passed it yo your Rueope

• A series of bad harvests experienced in Europe before the arrival of the Plague, this made the effects much worse

• The disease caused buboes/swellings filled with dark blood to form on the body, people were dead within hours of exposure, ¼ (minimum) of people died

• Death and destruction of the time encouraged people to lean away from the Church, people turned to reason 

• Quarantine developed

• Although it took almost 400 years for the social structure of the Middle Ages to fade completely from Western European society, the new path was opened not by philosophers, social reformers, merchants, monarchs, or popes, but by the misery of disease

• There was less original work done in natural philosophy - focused instead on death and salvation

• For those who survived, life held many more possibilities than it had before: they inherited properties and wealth of all relatives, 

• Sense of prosperity and freedom emerged: peasants got better deals from landowners, cities, countries, wealthy nobles competed to attract artisans and even peasants (they became rich)

• New money from decline in population in commerce centers - lead to explosion in patronage of the arts and education, interest in access to luxury…lead to renaissance

Renaissance in Europe (1400-1500s)

The renaissance was a cultural movement, - a period of rebirth in Europe after the black death and end of the Middle Ages. It is considered to be a return to antiquity (classical period in Ancient Greece = socrates, aristotle, plato, hippocrates)

• Renewed interest in the knowledge and methods of Antiquity in the arts, architecture, science, literature, and philosophy

• This time wouldn’t have flourished without SUPPORT from state/families: and they got something in return o the knowledge acquired in the relationship is practice (had to have a purpose, tangible = be sold, wasn’t necessarily for discovery)

Art and Architecture

• Return of columns and domes, intro to perspective and geometry in painting (Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael - all working for the Catholic Church)

Patronage

• Became more popular in the arts (natural philosophers were patroned in ancient Greece (classical period and some scholars/monks were patroned by the Crown)

• States and wealthy families would patron artists in order to display their wealth through art

• Allowed for the pursuit of philosophy independent of theology and Church support; occurred at eye level, parallel to Universities

• Medcis (a powerful Florentine banking family) were interested in a full translation of Plato and patroned/encouraged some humanists to undertake translation of Plato’s work

University/education

• Universities had two purposes:

  • Teaching and the passing down of knowledge 

  • Served as repositories of knowledge (conversation) 

• Little room for improvement - did no research

• Big names and popular inventors of the Renaissance aren’t necessarily affiliate with the universities (though they may have gone)

• 1300s: scholars not affiliated with the Church began to sell their services as teacher to the children of the rich in Italian city-states (allowed men and women to be educated)

• Mid 1400s and onward: interest in education began to rise and the goal of education turned from gaining a career in the Church to government offices, secretarial positions, gentry culture and patronage possibilities

• Increasing markets for education currency - universities developed less formal curriculum, and lessons and books were sold by educational entrepreneurs

Humanists

• They were responsible for reintroducing other ancient Greek and Roman thinkers (Plato) into Europe (rediscovery of ancient wisdom)

• Translations of ancient texts (those that were not introduced to Europe during the Middle Ages)

• A focus on moral improvement of humankind - learning should be at the service of the state and serve the greater good (bettering themselves through education)

• Interest in living a good life this world, rather than simply working to achieve salvation in the next 

• Language-based studies were important, not natural philosophy, but because of the translation of classical Greek texts, humanist methodology of using skepticism when reading sources, and their introduction of a new purpose for scientific discourse enabled the growth of natural philosophy

• Leonard Bruni: 

  • Thought learning was important, not just for Church but for individual (the common, greater good)

  • A part of a new generation of thinkers

  • Idea of Civic humanism (having an active life in politics) - ex. Florence is a republic

• Some women became well known humanists due to the scholar unaffiliated with the Church who provided education services to children of wealthy families

Natural Philosophy

• Scholars willing/able to ask fundamental questions about system of natural philosophy

• Development of new methods of study (completely changing Greek natural philosophy)

• Moved away from the Church and abandoned the idea of theology as the foundation/reason for the study of nature

• Constantiople falls, Byzantium, to the turk in 1453

  • This enabled the rediscovery of Greek natural philosophy

  • Before this, manuscripts were only traded from Byzantium/discovered in Italian monasteries

  • Invasion of the Turks cause texts to be thrown over the walls to save them and they were brought to Italy

• Rediscovery of Greek natural philosophy because easier in Europe with the invention of the printing press (spread of this knowledge through copying of texts)

The Printing Press

• Paper had already been brought to Europe in the 11/12th century from Arabs who learned from china (Water powered mills were invited by Nuremberg)

• Paper was made from older clothes, and water mills were used to crush older linen

• Johannes Gutenberg in 1448 invented moveable type printing: 

  • Combined the screw press and paper (both Asian inventions)

  • Carved letters into a hard metal, punched into mold of a softer metal, casted letters out a lead allow

  • Letter were uniform, printing was fast and durable

  • Lead to typography and fonts

  • By 1500s there were 1000+ printers in Europe

  • Created the Gutenberg bibles (300 copies)

  • European ink was not working well with pieces so they devises an oil-based ink 

• Printing had been used by the Chinese form around 1045 and moveable-type-system was created by Bi Sheng but it was inhibited in China because of the difficulty of creating characters for pictographic nature of the language and it posed a threat to the class of scribes

• Information because widely more available, cost of books decreased (the more you print, the less expensive) and were more accessible - the lead to the spread of literacy and knowledge, and it was easier to access information with page numbers and table of contents

• Wood-block printing (China) - was not as good for literature but instead cards, and images

• Cities organized themselves around paper making, it was widely available by the 16th century

• Paper was used for commerce at first

• Creation of jobs in typography (literate, highly specialized, high class artisanship)...but parchment makers, binders, calligraphers lost their job - demise of a multi-century old book making tradition

• Correction of Greek and other natural philosophy texts (production of exact copies from original texts) meant that scholars could focus on finding new knowledge rather than correcting the old

• Long term effects: 

  • Protestant reform (individualism) - don’t need priest, translate from latin into other languages

  • News cycle (nationalism) - 16th century: gazelle, weekly,  4 pages Venice

  • Newspaper (British, Dutch, French) - 17th century, created new social environments

Alchemy during Renaissance

• Alchemy (an early form of chemistry): study and transformation of the matter

• Paraclesus (1493-1541) - Alchemist, was an example of humanism

  • Emphasis on observation rather than the classical treaties (only discussion/investigating subjects) but still produced commentaries

  • He loved certain elements of the classics though: returning to what are the effects of natural elements on disease (and times of remedies)

  • Iatrochemistry: Medicine and Chemistry (drugs, poisons, and useful tools (opium))

  • Humoral imbalances are caused by the environment: thought the “Metals” of the body needed to be balanced (Mercury, Sulphur, Salt)

  • Like cures Likes: the notion that 

• ‘Like cures Like’; the disease can be cured by a substance that produces similar symptoms in healthy people (vaccines)

• Alchemy practiced in laboratories (not yet, but soon)

• Practical approach: wanted better knowledge of medicine

• Failure leads to achievement of something tangible - possible lead to the development of the scientific method

Anresas vesalius (1543) - Anatomy

• Wrote on the fabric of the human body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica): publication disproving the number of Galen’s ideas; thesis that human anatomy must be better understood through hands-on dissections, was filled with drawing and showing of fascination with death

• Received Doctor of Medicine Degree from University of Padua and became an anatomy lecturer

• Criticized how medicine was taught in europe (was too hands off)

• Insisting on performing dissections (he traveled around eEurope performing public dissection - Universities not attached to Church)

• Anatomy lecturers at this time typically read Galen and assistant pointed to anatomical parts (focus on hippocratic medicine)

• Other notes: after Black death, outlooked on death changed (in Italy some municipalities allowed dissections around murders), Anatomically correct wax models were created by women

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - Astrology (start of scientific revolution?)

• Polish, did not work in University, but was a unimportant civil servant

• He found complete copies of Ptolemy’s Almagest (critical source for astronomy at the time) in Italy as a student, had printed version of Euclid’s Elements, and the required reading list of all important scientific works from antiquity for 16th century astronomers and mathematicians

• His ideas mainly derived from Arabic works of Islamic astronomers (therefore, his planetary model cam from a combination of works across cultures)

• Work in 1543: On the Revolutions of the Celestial Bodies:

  • No new methods or mathematical techniques

  • No new astronomical observations

  • Re-simplified everything (Greco-Roman)

  • Promoted a heliocentric system (placed sun at the center rather than the earth, with planets revolving around the stationary sun, Earth had motion to account for day/night, annual orbit around sun, and motion of the axis of Earth’s rotation to make seasons)

    • This heliocentric system accounted for the bounded elongations of Mercury and Venus, the changing brightness of the planets, and calculations of relative distances

•  Six planets

• Had no test to demonstrate the motion of the Earth

• There were theological problems with Copernican System (and reduction of the Earth to the rank of a mere planet)

Scientific Revolution (1543-1687)

What is the scientific revolution?

• Rapid advances in European scientific and political thought (after the reintroduction of Greco-Roman natural philosophy during the European Renaissance)

• Based on a new philosophy of empiricism (knowledge comes from experience, not innate ideas or reason alone) that defined Europe in the 16/17th centuries

• Did modern science actually take place as a revolution?

• Copernicus’s change of the sun’s location brought debate, and by this time this theory reacher the main circle of debates

• Patronage of natural philosophy! (philosophers in the court) - a wave of establishment/institutionalization of science within academics

• Debunking the ancients: through the rise of the scientific method - Philosophers began to ask how do we know things are true? (the rediscoveries of ancient natural philosophers and challenges to that during the Renaissance lead to this turn to this new scientific method)

Mathematic as the language of Natural Philosopher

• Natural philosophers looked for certainty in measurements (rather than analysis of cause)

• Rediscovery of algebra, development of calculus (new and easier notation systems were devised)

Francis Bacon - (1561-1626) - Courtly philosopher (patroned), trained lawyer

• Replaces Aristotle, building of true knowledge of nature is through empirical EXPERIMENTATION; nature in a controlled setting isolated from larger (uncontrolled) environment (inductive method)

• Thought by by humans studying these small/discrete bits of nature…that the problem that (he believed) all human knowledge was flawed because of prejudices and preconceived ideas held by humans and how they see the world

• Suggested that bits of info could be gathered by groups of investigators (scientists), put together in tabular form, and explained by an elite group of interpreters (Solomon’s House)

• Created a community of scholars: proposed a means of controlling truth and knowledge by a small elite group who determined what could be studied and what answers were acceptable

• For him, knowledge was power, and thus an understanding of nature was important precisely because of the practical applications 

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - Mathematics teacher and practitioner… eventually accepted a post of Court Philosopher (temptation of patronage - Queen of Sweden)

• Needed a method to discover what we don’t know

• Discourse of the Methods (1637): Deductive method of research based on skepticism; alternative to Aristotle’s epistemological system

• He began to doubt everything: I think, therefore I am (doubting everything until you  come to know that as a thinking and doubting being, you must exist in order to think the doubting thought)

• Created an individualistic method that gave more power to individual thinkers (compared to Bacon who answered the question of how we now what is true in a careful way)

• Mathematization and Mechanisation of Life: Cartesian graph, animal “machine” (philosophical notion that animal behavior is like machines)

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

• Philosopher and astronomer - example of the patronage system (university trained and convinced a king to patronage his research)

• Had a goal of making Copernician model more acceptable in the Church

• He bought an island and constructed an observatory (Palace) and largest pre-telescopic astronomical instruments (The Giant mural Quadrant)

• Observations: a new start in 1572 (Nove), and a comet in 1577 -Aristotle said the sky didn’t change…forced people to think about the reality of the objects of Aristotelian cosmology but had no alternative physics to propose (no mathematics evidence)

• Improving measuring instruments (quadrant, sextant) and unprecedented accuracy with the naked eye

  • Giant mural quadrant: angel measuring instrument build onto a wall, measured angles from 0 to 90 degrees, used to measure the altitude of the stars as they passed the meridian

• Tychonic planetary system (1588 - ideas from both Ptolemy and Copernicus)

  • Geo-heliocentrism: Sun and moon revolve around the earth, everything else revolved around the sun

  • Saved the earth as the center of the universe (God’s grace) like Ptolemy’s system and still explained the bounded elongations of Mercury and Venus resolved by Copernician

  • Earth is motionless, entire vault rotates once a day

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

• He was a protege of Brahe but they didn’t get along

• Didn’t have good eyesight, but he had good mathematical background - Mathematical accuracy and astrology were important to Kepler

• Supported Copernicus: intellectual mathematical approach - Heliocentric system…destroyed the idea of the perfect circular motion of the heavens

• He inquired about the physical cause of the motion of the heavens (rather than just mapping their course) - sun is altering the orbit of the planets? Magnetism (gravity)?

• Discovered three major laws of planetary motion

• Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596)

  •  How do we explain the distances between the planets, their orbits, why only six planets?

• Astronomia Nova (Kepler’s war with Mars, 1609)

  • Mars moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus of the ellipse (first law), a line from the Sun to Mars sweeps out equal areas in equal times (second law)

• Harmonices Mundi (Harmonies of the world, 1619)

  • The square of the time of a planet’s orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean radius (third law)

• He Joined Brahe for better observations of planetary motion…they had differing ideas though

• Newton gave some credit to Kepler for a number of ideas

Galileo Galilei (1564)

• Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, was still compile with the Catholic Church

• Was apart of universities but then pivots to kings, important families and because of anxieties and hysteria, changes to astronomy

• Defender of heliocentrism

• God created the world in number, measure and weight

• Heard of the telescope developed in the Netherlands in early 1600s, imported a model and developed a more powerful version (1609):

  • Jupiter's moons, Phases of Venus, The Moon (not smooth - against Aristotle)

• 17th century: scientists started writing letters to each other (Kepler and Galileo) - not just trying to prove Copernicus is right, but also in relationship to one another 

• Rather than looking for the causes of motion, Galileo looked to develop laws for how motion worked (published his mechanics in Discourse on the Two New Sciences) - influential for Newton’s later work

• Work on falling bodies (gravity)

  • A falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible (two balls of different mass falling from the same height would land at the same time)

• Work on military compass (projectiles), pendulums, thermometers as Galileo worked his way up the patronage system

• Galileo’s discoveries were controversial since they showed the imperfection of the heavens (went against Aristotelian supralunar perfection), 

• Truly proves Copernicus is right in 1613 with a letter on Sunspots

• 1616: the Church bans Copernicus books

• Galileo makes a deal with the Pope to write a book from both perspectives (but was really one sided - Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems)

• For his book, he is summoned to Rome by the Inquisition, goes on trial, then in 1633 he is forced to keep his opinion to himself but is not banned from working, and goes back to physics

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

• Polymath: taught himself geometry from Descrates’s works and algebra from Viete;s

• Potential heretic? He did not believe in the special divinity of Christ or in the Trinity (but did not voice these opinions)

• Throw out the notion that space is perfect, and earth is imperfect; and that physics and can be applied everywhere

• Physics reconciled with astronomy

• He was a product of the university system but he had to leave and do work, but then becomes a professor of University and publishes his work in Latin

  • Optic work and theories of light, calculus, three laws of motion in physics (Newtonian physics), the law of universal gravitation (stem from Kepler and Galileo)

• He becomes the poster-boy for scientists, but note that he did more things like alchemy…

• Polymath; taught himself geometry from Descrates’s works and algebra from Viete’s

• Potential heretic: did not believe in the special divinity of Christ or in the Trinity (kept these views very private)

• Developed 3 laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation

• Investigations into optics and theories of light

Institutions and Organizations during the Scientific Revolution

During the 1600s the form of patronage shifts, there were important families but also a wave of establishments and institutions of science with academics, and academies differed from universities and the type of methods (by 1700s almost every country had a scientific research academy)

• Kings and queens in Europe put together institutions that will bring scientists together as a form of direct patronage and to get concrete results from scientists 

• The academies decided what subjects are going to be validated

• Involved big forums of discussions

• “Nation building”

• Different type of science from Universities

• After the academies: Science was seen as a public endeavor, there were more cooperative/multinational projects, communication established as an essential element of scientific enterprise (academic publications, memoirs, an audience, PEER REVIEWED MODEL), and scientific society established scientist as experts (science soon became a profession)

Royal Society of London (1662)

• Established by Royal Charters (formal grant issued by monarch), and it the longest standing institution of scientific practice

• Independent/autonomous from University System and the State and no direct involvement from the Crown - had a life of their own, all autonomy given to scientist to manage their activities

• Scientists remained politically neutral and could be free from social-political problems, but with royal protection

• Baconian philosophy of research (empiricism - observation and experience)

• Gatekeeping  -  strict method of choosing members, members had to be appointed by existing members (excluded gentry, trades people, and women since this would conflict with the ‘perfect’ image of natural philosophers)

• Had the first public academic journal

L'Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris (1666)

• Founded by King Louis the 14th (sun king) - patroned by the King (opposite of Royal Society of London which was independent of the State/Crown)

• King’s project of making France the first political power of Europe, and the research agenda was set by State

• Contributed to a dramatic new organization of science: encouraged natural philosophers to develop social codes for behavior rules about who could do science and what counted as science

• Had a top-down organizations - king appointed certain number (16 academics and paid as civil servants: important step in professionalization of Science)

• Despite few new discovery’s, this academy had tremendous resources, and therefore could undergo important explorative mission; in 18th century confirmed shape of earth (gravity, bulge near equator)

• This was the beginning of the institutionalization of science, different from both university-based science and court-based science of the sixteenth century, although owing much to that earlier model. 

• Main objective of the Academy was to take theories and use their resources to test them

Russian Academy of Science (1724)

• Russia was the largest territory in the world by this time (under rule of Peter I The Great)

• Cartography was the main goal of the academy: expeditions of large teams with vast resources, this is where royal patronage comes to create exposition (ex. First Russian Atlas in 1745)

• Russia had academies as a matter of governance/power of its own territory (more practical) 

• Established botanical gardens, and translated Western scientific books (beginning of Russia catching up to Western Europe)

• School of Mathematics and Navigation in Moscow established in 1701 formed the basis of the Academy

Further Scientific technological advancements/inventions of Scientific Revolution

• Laboratories: 

  • Emerged in the 1500s (from alchemy tradition during the Renaissance), popularized in the 1600s

  • Experiments verified by duplication in a controlled environment: standardization of science

  • Private gentry space controlled who could enter

  • Was used by private individuals, not academies (Robert Boyle, Chemist in London)

• Microscope

  • Used by Robert Hook for Micrographia in 1665 and and Antoine van Leeuwenhoek in 1670s

  • Learned there was more to the material world than we thought - started looking at the invisible and along with it, other questions about life on earth

• Madeburg hemispheres: a pair of large copper hemispheres that trap air when placed together… were used in a famous 1654 experiment to demonstrate the power of atmospheric pressure

Was there really a scientific revolution?

Changes: geocentric -> heliocentric, scientific method, end of Artistotelian physics (Newton instead - earth and sky), new scientific institutions (academies and laboratories - patronage), new era of collaboration and publications

Continuities: university system, lack of opportunities for women and other groups, limited changes in medicine and life sciences, god still present, laboratory really took from medieval alchemy labs 

(Some argue that it took place later in 17/1800s when engineers existed and rigid classification of disciplines…)

The New World and the Age of Exploration - Beginning in 1400s

The age of exploration is filled by a mixture of political events, commercial interest and scientific advancements. Since the Crusades, Europeans had an interest in goods available through trade with the Middle East and Asia. By the 15th century trade was controlled by the Turkish Empire (after the fall of Constantinople), European nations decided to travel around Africa to go around them (Cape of Good Hope).

Indian Ocean Exploration

Portugues: 

• Islamic traders had been sailing extensively in the Indian Ocean (and trading with the Indian population) for many years before the Portuguese started their project of exploration and trade

• The Portuguese were interested in voyaging mainly for commerce: interested in working with Arab traders (who had been sailing the Indian Ocean since 1100s and had established outposts, trading with India) in order to develop new routes to the East

• Their maps of the Indian Ocean made use of the knowledge of Arabic traders - but when they published these maps, they erased the Muslim sources

• Sailed around Africa to access products and riches in Asia - asserted their presence in India and then in China in 1557 and forced Chinese emperor to open small settlement for traders and missionaries to take root

• NOTE: this served as the entrance gate for Portuguese products but also Jesuit science

Dutch

• The Dutch began exploring same route as Portuguese in 1600s

• Tea is a by product of this era of trade

• British eventually asserted dominance in this trade

Innovations in geography and navigation - the Renaissance gave a push for innovation in geography and navigation:

• Caravel: sailing ship developed by Portuguese in 15th century with military warfare equipment (canon), and they are quite stable on oceans

• Compass and astrolabe (from Islamic Golden Age): astrolabe determines the positions of the sun, moon, planets and stars (good for timekeeping while traveling)

• Ptolemy’s Geographia was translated in the the early 1400s

Atlantic Ocean exploration

Note: Chinese (fisher folk) had already been traversing the Atlantic Ocean for centuries.

Explorers of Americas disproved a number of ancient and medieval theories of the Earth (Earth had a much larger proportion of dry land than had been suspected)

Note: Spanish had reached the Americas by mistake, seeked gold and silver and began to focus on colonization (African slave trade was introduced _

Columbian Exchange

Exploration was a game of empire: coastal powers in Europe had the means to sponsor and patronage explorers. There was no turning back when the connection forged between Europeans and the Indigenous peoples of the Americas in the 1400s. 

• This flow and counterflow is known as the Columbian exchange: goods, crops, mineral wealth, words, medicines flowed into Europe

• Livestock, humans, plants traveled to Americas

• Exchanges were grouped into three categories: diseases, plants, and animals

• Colonization is a complex and global process, it is replicated all over the American continent

• Named after Christopher Columbus following his 1492 exploration to the Americas

• It was a process of describing, cataloging, and mapping new environment (understanding) - first decades following the formation of a permanent colony by the French - were spent cataloging and describing the natural world

Columbian Exchange/Exploration in Canada

• As the number of French settlers increased, more European species were transplanted to North America - invasive species, livestock impact Indigenous landscapes, livelihoods, cultures, and health 

  • Plants brought over: Wheat, rye, oats, millet, buckwheat, peas, flax, hemp, cabbages, asparagus

  • Livestock: horses (biggest impact) cows, pigs, chickens

  • Other animals from Europe to Canada: sheep, chickens, cats, rats, honey bees

• By 1672, all plants and animals of importance to life in the old country (goods and native species) were present in New France

• Europeans saw it as a land of wilderness and something that needed to be cultivated and developed; they see man living in nature and it doesn’t align with their values (different relationship with nature than Indigenous peoples)

• Indigenous traded fur to French, and the Europeans metal based tools

• Before 1663: New France is the private property of Fur Trade Companies, but the then the King (louis the 14th) takes direct control of the colony of New France

Exploration, Cartography, and Hydrography 

• Natural philosophy/science was a byproduct of new explorations

• French colonial power had to make advances in cartography and hydrography (water) in order for them to explore and calm New France as their colony (the Indigenous canoe helped with this)

• Surveys were conducted by royal engineers or military surveyors to collect data (military reasons/preparation, exploration, cadastral mapping (boundaries, population…)

• Samuel de Champlais: famous and best explorer and cartography - prepared many maps (1632 made from the authentic surveys, great lakes)

• But the man who drew never set foot in New France (with Champlain and Jesuit data)

• Jesuit missionaries were major explorers that gave geographical information to European cartographers: provided most of the knowledge in hydrography, cartography, mathematics, astronomy (geographical coordinates) to the colony into the 1700s, with increasing support from French state 

New Institutions in Europe

As the New World was explored and information was collected and returned to Europe, there were advancements and new disciplines in Science. 

• There was a close connection between management of France’s colonies and support for the Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris, 1666)

  • Since the Academie was funded by the State and the academicians who worked there did research for the State, the State wanted information to be collected from the new world and brought back to France for research

  • Traveling scientists (traveled to colonies in Americas, later to Caribbean), colonial correspondents (to practice science at home), and local collectors (find new species, conserve, and send to Europe) all contributed to the advancement of science in the Academie

  • Science was driven by a desire to catalog what made New France unique, practical science too: control territory

• Canada found its way to the scientific discourse in the Academies across Europe

  • Information about maple syrups (maple tree, process of evaporation, refinement) brought to France from French settlers (learned from Indigenous)

  • Idealized “Canadian” - stolen: Tabaco, snow shoes, moccasins…in exchange for technologies (firearms, clothing, metal)

  • Indigenous knowledge + European techniques = product (spruce beer, maple sugar)

  • Missionaries, natural philosophers, botanists began to study Maple tree: publication were made by Royale Academie

• Botanical Gardens and Observatories created in Britain and France 

  • European botanists (with academies/royals society) would travel to the new colonies and collect botanical (study of Botany became popular and independent during Renaissance after rediscovery of Greco-Roman texts)

  • This lead to the creation of Botanical Gardens (Royal garden)

• Bioprospecting (exploration of natural sources for molecules that can be used in products) → science for utility in food, medicine, textiles

Jesuit Science (1540-1773) 

The intellectual arm of the Catholic Church, they were adaptable, mingled everywhere and had a main goal of spreading Christianity and conversion. Jesuit missionaries founded schools, colleges, universities and missions all over the world. 

• Society of Jesus (1540) was an order devoted to apostolic activity (Apostles - early group of christians who traveled to different places telling people about Jesus Christ) through missions and education - promoting new forms of preaching and teaching

  • Frequently worked with colonial empires of Spain, Portugal and France

• By 1750, Jesuits operated over 500 colleges/universities in Europe and 100 overseas (mostly spanish america) and had around 270 missions around the world

Jesuits in North America

• The Jesuit College was founded in 1635 in Quebec by the Society of Jesus (1540)… became a site for advancement of mathematical education and science in New France

  • Hydrography school was opened in 1708 (math, astronomy, physics for navigators and surveyors)

  • Private library with emphasis on medicine and pharmacy (most important in colony)

  • Faith limited what could be taught at the college

• In Spanish America, French Canada Portuguese West indies, Jesuits gathered knowledge of plants and their cures from Indigenous people -  translated/sent knowledge and specimens to Europe -  contributed to European collections of scholars

Jesuits in Latin America

• First Jesuits arrived in Brazil in 1549, Peru in 1568, Mexico in 1572

• Jesuits became involved in the main religious, social, economic and political activities of each region (founded colleges, residences

• Jesuit establishments in Latin American maintained communication with headquarters of the order in Rome

Jesuits in China

• Jesuit exploration of China - established themselves in 1560s, time of permanent residency of Matteo Ricci in Beijing from 1601 (with bureau of Astronomy)

• Jesuits had goal of their people living in China and wanted the Emperor to adopt Christianity (conversion)

• Techniques of conversion:

  • Astronomy card: since astronomy was important to the Chinese Emperor (governing system and celestial mandate), there was an interest in working with the Jesuits to seek out their astronomical devices and knowledge

  • The Chinese had a lunar-solar calendar, but Astronomy was reaching a plateau (problem with missed eclipse in 1592)

• Any gifts given by Emperors to Jesuits were used to fund scientific advancements

• Jesuit cartography and Chinese mathematics were combined to form accurate maps of world (for the time) - first graphical interpretations of North America

• Confucius (Chinese philosopher) teachings/writings is translated and arrives in Europe from jesuits

• Jesuit manuscript published in Chinese

• Heliocentrism in 1700s makes its way to China by Jesuits (irony) and they had to adapt

Rangaku in Japan (1639-1850s)

Japan has an intellectual elite that adopts European science for their own purposes (1700s). 

After the end of the Japanese Civil War, Japan was stabilized, prospering and unified under the Tokugawa Shogunate government (1600-1868). Shogunate concentrated on building a stable Japan free of civil war and within, and was concerned with Western expansion (and Christian mission). He permitted very little trade, except with the Dutch for they could still be isolated and there were no Jesuits. As the Dutch explored the Indian Ocean (East Indies, Spice Islands, Batavia), they reached Japan in 1600 and established themselves at Hirado, Nagasaki in 1609 thus beginning Rangaku in 1639.

• Rangaku (“Dutch Learning”) is the body of knowledge developed by Japan through contact with the Dutch

• The Isolationist policy of 1635, a seclusion law in Japan, with the exception of the Dutch

• Dutch actors collected info about Japan and likewise, Western science is a big part of the early exchange with Japan

• Trade with the Dutch (Dutch East India Company) was restricted to only 1 port/artificial island but this was how Japan accessed European resources and knowledge 

• Trade was done by interpreters who translated European texts (medical and scientific books) into Japanese

• Japanese surgeon (Hanaoka Seishu) combined Dutch and japanese surgery techniques with use of Chinese traditional herbal medicine for anesthesia technique

• Network of Scholars/students: own version of an intellectual enlightenment in Japan - Za (japanese version of Salon) permits scientific discussion and demonstrations (more playful, less politicized and informal than those in Europe)

• There was more of an emphasis on practical knowledge: mechanical arts, clock making

Rangaku ends (1850-1860) when the Dutch lose their influence because the United States thought they should be in Japan and gain political power - US forces Japan to stop isolationist policy, and Ango-British move in

Enlightenment in Europe (1600s-1700s)

The enlightenment was an European intellectual movement centered on the use of reason to advance understanding of the universe and improve human condition. 

• Goals of rational humanity were considered to be knowledge, freedom, and happiness - rationalizing humanity (reason in understanding, God, nature, humanity - human at the center of everything else)

• Revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics

• Use and celebration of reason

• Concepts of the enlightenment: Universality (universal laws that govern human nature = ration, informed, happy society - human rights) and Progress

By the end of the 1700s, there was a scientific society in almost every major city - science was outside of universities. 

Popularization of science - there were rising levels of literacy and royal academies

Natural philosophy began to flow into general culture beyond a small elite of intellectuals: it became fashionable, and a tool for reform/change. And lead to Amateur scientific activities: 

Salons (france and Italy)

• Intellectuals (artists, writers, musicians, philosophers, scientists) were invited to exchange conversation and discuss philosophical and scientific questions. 

• Example of patronage - intellectual would share their knowledge/creation and wealthy elite could patron them to enable their work and get elected in academy positions

• They were hosted by wealthy women (wives), in elegant drawing rooms of wealthy class

• Women were informally using their social status to influence certain outcomes institutionally 

Demonstrators

• Scientific discourse occurred in Britain in coffee houses and lecture halls

• Demonstrators would tell people about scientists/scientific discoveries and informed society the transformations occurring in politics and technology -  making science morally acceptable

Women in Science 

Women were always a part of the history of science (ex nuns), but the enlightenment provided more opportunities for them to contribute (limited still).

• Madeleine Basseporte: illustrator and collector for Botany; plants for the royal garden that specialize in herbal medicine 

• Assistants to a brother, husband or professional as a data collector 

• Marie-Catherine Biheron (student to Basseporte): anatomical illustrations, dissections that happened didn’t include women, therefore she made max models of female body

• Emilie du Chatelet (countess and husband who supports):

  • Translated Newton for French scientists

  • Collaborated with Voltaire - first woman published in the Academie Royale

  • Worked on Kinetic Energy

  • Won 1737 competition of the Academie (anonymously) (optics and heat, infrared)

• Caroline Herschel: astronomical data collector

• Cristina Roccati: one of the first women to get a degree, taught at an academy of Physics in Italy

Amateur Scientific Societies 

• Groups of amateurs who were curious about collecting and understanding natural phenomena and attended natural philosophical lectures

• Intersection of scientific utility with industrial and economic interest

• Example: the Soho Foundry of Boulton and Watt: operated between 1765-1813 in Birmingham, England

  • Referred to themselves as ‘lunatics’, an exclusive club

  • Industricals, philosophers, poets….(Boulton, Watt, Murdoch, Keir)

• Short lived - highly associate with political progress and refined programs (began the target of certain repressive apparatus) 

• Important legacy: propel the creation of certain scientific societies with the idea of bringing industrialist, artists, craftsmen, and engineers together

Encyclopedie (Diderot’s)

• Most far reaching and ambitious project of 1700s

• Goal was to assemble all the knowledge scattered on earth, to provide a general system to the people, and transmit it to those after us - they be virtuous and happier

• Information on every subject of modern thought

• Followed the belief that understanding science, philosophy, mechanical arts would create a better society

• Collaborative work between authors and illustrators, writer’s signed their name

• Would be a counterpart to the Jesuit and Church sums of knowledge (they don’t share)

• Received Social criticism because promotion of modern industry and a faith in the power of scientific discovery

• The church had this encyclopedia banned but this banning was criticized for ‘limiting the expansion of science’ (became top of the day similar to Aristotle)

• Wanted to show craftsmanship in france (promote mechanical arts and political message)

• This system of classification was taking root in Europe: memory, reason, imagination

Electricity

• Electrical boy: popular and favorite experiment of 1700s, often performed as entertainment (demonstrations to public - follows goal of enlightenment)

• Leyden Jar (ancestor of batteries - stores electrical energy) 

• Benjamin Franklin uses the Leyden Jar to use electricity in a practical manner - a lightning rod, discharging mimic lighting (turning point in science) - you see a diplomatists revolutionary and a natural philosopher at the same time

Chemistry

• Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (late 1700s)

  • French Chemist “Father of Chemistry” - member of the Academie, product of Salon culture

  • Experimentation with oxygen and hydrogen - he debunked Greek myths about fire and combustion (phlogiston theory) - and this lead to actual theories of combustion

  • Method of Chemical Nomenclature: influences on periodic table

  • Elementary Treatise on Chemistry: one of the first modern textbook on chemistry

Units of Measurement

• Unification of a measurement system: certainly, made commercial change easier and communication easier 

Impact of French Revolution

• Different attitudes toward science

• 1793: End of Academie Royale des Sciences - at the height of the revolution when the king was beheaded, there was no monarch and thus it ended

  • No more aristocratic privilege in French science and education

  • Was replaced by the National Institute of Sciences and Arts (1795), Republican mindset

  • More new institutions: Louvre Museum, Ecole Polytechnique (engineering/mechanical arts), French Museum of Natural History (debate of evolution), French Monuments Museum - all preserving and furthering education in France, democratization of science

Industrial Revolutions

First Industrial Revolution (1750-1869)

Science was to have marketable and concrete applications. Massive movements of the population from rural to urban communities.

• Began in Britain where there was a burst in creative industrial activity due to wealth accumulated form the exploitation of natural resources from colonialism (commerce and economics)

• Shielded from wars in Europe

• Britain had a strong patent system to protect investors: opened the door to profit and commercializations and accumulation of wealth

• Golden age of capitalism: starts with technology (idea, design, utility), in Britain it encouraged wealth and investment

Science at this time was was instrumental in creating a culture of progress and claim for the utility of the scientific enterprise

Engineering in 1700s was done by engineers who used empirical methods rather than theoretical (artisans created something… natural philosophers created the theories to explain the mechanics)

Factory System, The Steam Engine & Coal

• Steam Engine (a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid) invented by Thomas Newcomen (1712) and improved by James Watt (1760)

• Steam Engine contributed to the creation of factories (hydraulics replaced man and horse power), steamboats, and compact steam engines on trains

• Large scale coal mining developed during ID (1800s is great era of fossil fuels) - Britain had coal mining sites, but as the need increased for steam engines, they dug deeper into the ground reaching water - and then the Steam Engine was used to pump/remove the water

• New forms of power (steam engine, railroad), there was a more large scale production  of goods through factories

  • Factories replaced shops and traditional units of production (family/village based production - into corporate based production)

  • In factories and plantations, work was divided into a series of simply tasks (one person = one step, and one factory = a speciality (large scale production))

  • These easy tasks in factories lead to a rise of unskilled workers…but increase in jobs and in population

Textile Industry

• After 1760, the manufacture of textiles (yarn, cloth, clothing, wool) moved from a domestic economy (family as the unit of production) to industrial production

• Spinning Jenny (1765 by James Hargreaves) - a multi-spindle spinning frame (for wool and cotton - spinster to produce 8 threads in the same time it takes to produce 1 traditionally)

• Spinning Mule (1779 Samuel Compton) - a machine used to spin cotton and other fibers - large contribution to cotton factories 

• The Cotton Industry boomed around 1800 (900 cotton-spinning factories in England)...the demand is so high in Britain it reinforces slavery in America

• Cotton plantations in America grew in the 1800s (main source for US and Britain) - work was done by slave in the American south

• Shoe industry: shoemakers went into factories, human knowledge gets replaced by machines, workers don’t do all the steps, don’t need to be highly trained, and don’t need to be paid as much

Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

We see the Industrial Revolution spread everywhere (outside of Britain), the success there is so big that other places have to industrialize. A long process, not a sudden event. 

Expansion of Railroads 

• Every major urban center in Britain is connected by railroads by 1860 (rapid change - 30 years)

• Cheaper and faster way of carrying goods….end of local economies (diverse markers, it doesn’t make sense to produce everything everywhere)

• Telegraphic systems along these railroads: needed a communication system to avoid accidents 

• The telegraphic system started in 1830s (with Samuel Morse (morse code), and was one of the first concrete applications of electricity)

• In 1851: telegraphic cable across the sea - brought world together 

Extraction of natural resources

• Petroleum (more easily transportable source of energy)

• Steel (more flexible and stronger than iron - building and infrastructure, tools and machines, weapons, furniture)

• Rubber (invention of vulcanization made the creation of various rubber products possible. Used in shoes/clothing, tires, insulation for electrical components, gaskets/seals for engines

  • South American Indians had used rubber for centuries before… Industrial revolution simply changed the means and scale of rubber production worldwide

• Quinine (the only known treatment for malaria) a product of colonial msi since it came from the bark of a tree found in Peru and was introduced to the Spanish by the local people in the 1630s

Standardization and mass assembly - utilitarian applications of science, assembly lines in factories

Financial system

• Growing complexity of the local capitalist economy 

• Rise of managerial middle class

• Banks, life insurance companies, trust companies, brokerage houses

Impact of the Industrial Revolutions

Factories (work vs home)

• Massive movement of the population from rural to urban communities 

• Families were no longer production units, production did not occur at home…production companies were now supplying the public (working class) with wages, and consumption/consumerism occurred at home

Classes + Labour Movement

• Emergence of new social classes -  determined by ownership/relationship to means of production rather than land (working class, middle/managerial)

• Working class formed (1790-1840)

• Artisan system (an apprenticeship system based on education, fraternity, and mutuality) declining

• Formation of first unions (typographer, tailors, plasters, other construction workers in 1830s) - craft/trade unions organize their workers based on their qualifications

• First strikes occurred in North America in the 1830s (Montreal - carpenters, Quebec City - Naval construction workers) - problematic for colonial state (more violent)

• Photography aids in spreading the word of strikes - strikes occurring around canals

• Master servant act occurred (artesian system language): made unions legal, made more prominent but still had to disguise themselves as fraternal/secret societies (repression from state)

• Birth of trade unionism part of the transition to capitalism and industrialization of North America (Birth of Labour movement, associated with first strikes)

  • Unfair working conditions (long hours), bad working conditions, inequality of pay all affecting labour movement 

Sanitation and Public Health

• Greater need for recreational/leisure activities (especially outside) to escape work life and damaging environmental effects of the industrial revolution

• Sanitation was very bad during the IR with denser cities, no sewage/waste systems - people didn’t know of hygiene and because a concern for doctors as they studied how urban markup damages human health

• Disease in European cities was spreading to other locations through commerce routes 

• Miasma theory to germ theory

  • People thought that bad air/bad smell caused disease

  • Dr John Snow (epidermatologist) studied location of Cholera in London (maps, statistics) and found that the disease was transmitted and coming from a contaminated well - germs found in ground well water (fecal matter) leading to germ theory

• Public Health movement: 

  • Physicians making medical science more accessible to the public in order to prevent transmission of disease and encourage good hygiene

  • Started looking to the causes of diseased, how they spread, statistics

  • By having microscopic analysis of water: and visible organisms - believed that germs were present

  • Set of rules/regulation were set, in case of outbreaks: no spitting, hand washing, soap production (Pears)

  • Larger: Science will come to influence political leadership in how to organize for epidemics, a push to have public health services attached to state's all around the world, on house physicians and nurses - scientific communication to the population 

Urban Reform Movements (making urbanization more sustainable - the planning of cities, health and environmental)

• Landscapes were altered by coal mining, railways, and other industrial ascites with pollution, and cultural cities raised environment concerns (needed to find solutions)

  • Coal burning caused fog (London Fog)...1896 Svante Arrhenius postulates the Greenhouse Gas Effect (was ridiculed at first)

  • Acid Rain (Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide becomes sulphuric and nitric acids once in the atmosphere) caused by factories and homes burning fossil field… acidified lakes, rivers, damaging infrastructure (stone, metal), affecting wildlife - the solution was to build taller chimneys

  • Sanitation became a major issue in cities (Paris and London) - they were not planned well, and became very cluttered - animals in the streets, waste was dumped  - human, animals, dead animals… (didn’t have sewage/waste system)

Public Works (urban renovation of cities)

• Pairs (1853-1870) was resigned to make larger boulevard (safer transportation, better traffic = better commerce), adding street light (safer, less prostitution and crime)

• Factories were placed close to water (working class surrounded them)

• Creation of SEWERS to manage waste (less clutter, better environment, better health, communal toilets…)

Public Leisures/New medias

• Opera, races, public houses (pubs), sports, parks

• Rise of photography - spread of new, how public will react to new forms of entertainments, propaganda, political tool

• Cinema (1895) - new form of leisure ( Thomas Edison form and the Lumiere brother becomes more fashionable and profitable), more informal than opera (working class and children) 

Biology and Empire

(Missed this lecture)

The 1800s were a time of great exploration for European Empire (when they dominated most parts of the globe politically, socially and economically) - as industrialization developed, it turned towards other countries for resources

International trade and information flow to colonial empires was made possible by innovations of the IR (Steamboats, railways, telegraphs)

Technology and Imperialism: as world exploration continued (dominated by Europe and driven by imperialism) specimens and information was collected around the world and exhibited (industrial/commercial displays, fine arts, exotic displays/specimens) - used for entertainment and tourist attractions (science was becoming a part of entertainment, popular education)

• Industrial Exhibitions (1800s): stimulated the development of industry, served advertising purposes, promoted the development of domestic and foreign trade

• Ex. Great International Exhibition in London (1851) - exotic displays from the British Empire - form of propaganda, show how Britain led the world with her industrial power

Natural History and Classification

Carolus Linnaeus (1700s):

• He impacted how collecting science in the 1700s turned into biological sciences in the 1800s

• Systema Naturae = his major work, starting point of modern binomial nomenclature (modern zoological nomenclature) - introduced the term “mammalia”

• Consider the present: Wanted to name and classify all known species (4440), to create a sum of knowledge from age of Enlightenment (collaborative)

• Classified humans as mammals (put animals and humans together?!)

• Tried to universalize the need for breastfeeding for all classes 

• ONLY considered the present (but when they dug for coal, they found fossils and the discovery made people think about the past: age of the earth? - debate about how species became extinct and changed?)

Debates in France over the natural history (institutional context)

• Catastrophism theories: that the Earth has been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events: but also that species do not mutate (are fixed)

• Against catastrophism: Uniformitarianism: states that the same geologic processes shaping the earth today have been at work throughout history and slowly changing the landscape

• Natural historian questions: where species came from and what they were? Did they evolve into something else? Change, is it possible? Extinction? - randomly appearing - fossil records 

• Began in French - most impressive network of Natural History Institutions (where there were cutthroat debates)

Buffon (1707-1788)

• Brings a Botany perspective (director of the King’s Gardens), contributed to biological species concept: every species/succession of individuals who reproduce and cannot mix, shall be treated separately

• Create no other families, genera, orders, and classes than what are exhibited in nature

• Comes with the idea that species change over time (slowly) - Biology is stable over time, morphology is not

• Uniformist outlook: speculated that the earth has gone through 6 epochs and is gradually changing over time

• First real stab at a somewhat theory of evolution - but why and how do they change?

Lamarck (1744-1829) - Student of Buffon

• Specialized in insects (Chair of insects, worms, and microspo[ic animals at the Museum of Natural History France

• Asked HOW do we come into existence?

• Species transformation is linear - life evolves from single to complex (simplest forms of both plants and animals life can be created by spontaneous generation when heat, light, electricity, and moisture organize matter into cellular tissues)

• Mutability of species two ways: power of life and action of the environment

• Denied possibility of extinction (because one species transformed into another through evolution and thus no species actually ceases to exist)

• Environment influenced development of various characteristics (important to evolutionary change)

Cuvier (1769-1832)

• Chair of Comparative Anatomy

• Argues against gradual evolution (no real evidence - cannot derive elephant from mammoth)

• Supports catastrophism and that species can become extinct - species do not mutate  into on another and are fixed, no common ancestor

• Great debater: very persuading to public (no degeneration/transformation of species)

• Aligns with sudden breaks in fossil records

Charles Darwin 1809-1882 (English side of natural history)

• Grandad of Science at the time

• Voyaged on the Beagle - along coast of South America..he sees evidence of change

• His work: The Origins of Species (1859) - a product of his explorations (Galapagos Islands, coast of South America, Pacific), and is a commercial success

• Natural selection as the driving force of evolution (Species evolve through small random variations that are passed on to the younger generations) - competition for survival, the ones best adapted will survive and reproduce

• Inspired by Lyell and his theories…and social economies (scarcity, need to survive)

• Doesn't know about DNA

• Uniformitarianism (against Cuvier, who had established himself as leading figure in France by mid 1830s)

• Darwin believes the same process of evolution/change also occurred in the past (earth has the same patterns)

• Objections to his theories:

  • Spiritual/philosophical theories (does not align with religious theories of creation)

  • Scientific/empiric theories (no empirical evidence, no mechanism linking variation with species formation, discontinuity in the fossil record)

• Served as scientific racism (science to ‘justify’ racism)

  • Eugenists claimed that the state had a duty to limit the multiplication of its least fit citizens and to encourage its most fit to increase

  • (think of Nazi Germany - national socialism)

End of the 1800s

(missed lecture)

Professionalization of Science and the University System

• States invested to support research institutes, schools, and labs

• University network expanding and becoming more accessible/applicable to different classes and disciplines

  • Red Brick Civic University in UK for lower income/working class

  • Morrill Land-Grant Acts of 1862 and 1890: creation of different branches of learning related to agriculture and mechanic arts - liberal and practical education of the industrial classes

  • Historically Black Colleges founded in South after Civil War - give Black community in US the opportunity to create a middle class

• Universities combining teaching and research (moving from a storage of science to critical thinking - different social function)

• More international collaboration with governments overseeing the formation of universities and new research

• Science fully transitioning from patronage and academies to professions (researchers supplying information for jobs in scientific application)

Understanding the micro

The Periodic Table

• Lavosier (enlightenment) had originally tried to organize chemical elements, and thai was continued through the work of Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeleiv (1834-1907)

• Between 1886-71, Dmitri attempts to arrange the elements in terms of their atomic weight - produces a table with gaps predicting the existence and properties of unknown elements - to be filled in throughout history as more discoveries are done (Dmirtri facilitate Chemistry and its exploration)

Discovery of viruses (1892), acceptance of germ theory

• Dmitri Ivanovsky discovered viruses and changed the understanding of diseases

• Louis Pasteur did work on diseases like rabies - led to an acceptance of the germ theory of disease and vaccines as methods of immunization 

Cellular Biology - German and British scientist together

• Cell Theory (1839) by Schwann and Jakob - postulates that the cell is the most important element of life (unifies plants and animals) - this becomes a focus of research in biology thus leading to understanding of cellular respiration, energy exchange, and heat production

• Chromosomes (1850s): Hofmeister observes and describes cell division

• Genes (1903) Sutton suggest that genes are found on chromosomes and account for the traits passed down through generations

Physics - light, electricity, magnetism explored while new formulas and theories are discover (up to this point had only explored Newtonian physics) 

Search for ether: 

• The idea that there is a fluid in which particles exist nad float around in has existed since Ancient Greece

• Michelson-Morely experiment in 1887 detected no ether 

Thermodynamics (quantum theory)

• Established by Max PLANCK

• To obtain the proper radiation distribution, energy needs to be absorbed and emitted in discrete amounts

Relativity and Atomic Theory 

• Einstein’s Special Relativity (1905) created the principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light - end of Newtonian concepts of absolute motion, constant mass, and absolute time - eventually leads to better understanding of space (space exploration!)

• Ernest Rutherford created a nuclear model of the atom - speculates that is should collapse - the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is discrete

• Quantum theory: Created by NIEL BOHR in 1913, includes the idea of stable orbits (electron stable/not emitting light when in allowed orbits, emits radiation when jumps to another orbit)

Radioactivity 

• Marie and Pierre Curie

• Idea of the unstable nucleus = radioactivity

X-rays 

• Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen (1896)

Psychology

• Development of psychology as a profession and social science (before psychiatry was seen in asylums)

• Sigmund Freud proposed psychoanalysis - discovering the unconscious, mental disorders linked to biological disorders

• Behaviorism popularized by Skinner’s experiments (observation becoming important in psych(

Read through Notes

WWI & WWII

WWI (1914-1918) - The Chemist’s War

• Growing interest of the European powers in chemistry during the 1800s → usage of chemistry for chemical warfare during war

• Trench & Chemical warfare

  • First use of chemical weapons in 1915 by Germans in Ypres Belgium (released chlorine gas, opened major breach in the lines)

  • Chlorine and tear gas being developed 

  • Search for defensive equipments (gas masks… labs created to test different materials/technology for effective gas masks)

  • New chemical weapons and military institutions (ie. Chemical Warfare Service in US)

  • Chemical warfare hs lasting effect especially on the environment

1918 Flu Pandemic (Spanish flu)

• Infected 500 million individuals

• Spread with soldiers’ movement after the armistice

WWII (1939-1945) - The Physicist’s War

Ramped up scientific breakthrough themes rather than individuals

• Manhattan Project: program of research and development to produce nuclear weapons

  • Research on nuclear fission

  • First nuclear reactor in 1942 by Enrico Fermi

  • Atomic bomb in 1945 → explosions of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

• Hundreds of physicists and academics flee germany (Einstein one of the first to leave)

• Radar (detecting objects beyond range of sight→ aircrafts), sonar (naval applications) technology

• Computers: Colossus (first large-scale electronic computer, cryptanalysis)

AFTER: The place of science in society will change dramatically after WWII :

• Research agendas will be established by national governments;

• Scientific teams were increasingly funded by major research institutions through grants and contracts

• Science will become intrequate to the military-industrial complex

• New universities

• Large-scale infrastructure: freeway construction, interstate, hydro-electric dams…

• Consumerism and Affluence: Microwave, Automobile, Television (normalism)