AMSCO Unit 1 Chapter 1-2 Notes

Thinking Geographically

Unit Overview

• Geography emphasizes the spatial perspective, focusing on:

  • The "why of where" – why phenomena are located in certain areas and their relationships.

  • The interactions between humans and the physical environment.

• Tools for understanding geography include:

  • Big Ideas: Broad concepts for understanding geographic processes.

  • Four-Level Analysis: A framework to help structure geographic thinking (explained below).

  • Five Skill Categories: Guidelines for analyzing geographic data and concepts.

Branches of Geography

1. Physical Geography:

   • Studies the natural environment's spatial characteristics, such as:

     • Landforms

     • Bodies of water

     • Climate

     • Ecosystems

     • Erosion

2. Human Geography:

   • Focuses on human activities and their spatial patterns, including:

     • Population

     • Culture

     • Politics

     • Urban areas

     • Economics

Four-Level Analysis Spatial Framework

• Location is key to geographic understanding.

• Four-Level Analysis involves:

  • Comprehension: What is happening?

  • Identification: Are there patterns in the source?

  • Explanation: Pick a pattern and explain why it occurs.

  • Prediction: What will be the impact on the economy, society, politics, or the environment?

• Tools include maps, charts, graphs, and data to analyze spatial relationships.

Four-Level Analysis Spatial Framework Example

• Comprehension (L1):

  • Questions: What? Where? When? Scale? Source?

  • Example using Earth at night:

    • What? Earth at night

    • Where? Earth

    • When? 2016

    • Scale? Global scale

    • Source? nasa.gov

• Identification (L2):

  • Questions: Are there patterns in the source? Examples of patterns:

    • Coasts are brighter than interiors.

    • Northern Hemisphere is brighter than the Southern Hemisphere.

    • Eastern China is brighter than Western China.

• Explanation (L3):

  • Question: Why did this pattern occur there?

  • Example: Coastal areas have more access to global trade networks, fostering economic activity. Additionally, opportunities like jobs and resources attract populations to these areas.

• Prediction (L4):

  • Question: What are the impacts or future implications?

  • Examples:

    • Economic: Cost of living is higher in coastal regions.

    • Environmental: Pollution and waste affect oceans and marine life.

Essential Geography Skill Categories 1–5

The AP Human Geography exam requires students to:

• Learn content and discipline-specific language.

• Apply skills to real-world scenarios in both parts of the exam.

1. Skill Category 1: Concepts and Processes

   • Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, or models in theoretical and applied contexts.

     • Analyze: Break down content and study each part carefully.

     • Theory: A system of ideas explaining or predicting interactions and processes.

     • Concepts: Key vocabulary, ideas, and building blocks geographers use to describe the world.

     • Processes: Series of steps explaining why or how patterns occur.

   • Models in Geography:

     • Representations of reality that help geographers understand and analyze spatial patterns.

     • Two types of models:

       1. Spatial Models: Stylized maps showing patterns like land use or city distribution.

       2. Nonspatial Models: Use graphs, tables, or words to depict changes over time rather than spatial patterns.

   • Data Driven Models

     • Formulas geographers use to help them understand how the world works.

     • Example:

       1. Time-Distance Decay: The idea behind this model is that things like cities are often more connected when they are closer to each other.

2. Skill Category 2: Spatial Relationships:

   • Analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts.

     • Spatial Patterns: The general arrangement of things being studied

     • Important Terms Include:

       1. Density

       2. Dispersion

       3. Clustered

       4. Scattered

       5. Linked

   • These terms are used to communicate information about locations and distributions

     • Networks: A set of interconnected entities, sometimes called nodes.

3. Skill Category 3: Data Analysis:

   • Analyze and interpret quantitative geographic data represented in maps, tables, charts, graphs, satellite images, and infographics.

     • Quantitative Data: Any information that can be measured and recorded using numbers

     • Geospatial Data: Quantitative data that includes a geographic location as a component

   • Remember that data can be incorrect, inaccurate, or incomplete.

4. Skill Category 4: Source Analysis:

   • Analyze and interpret qualitative geographic information represented in maps, images (e.g., satellite, photographic, cartoon), and landscapes.

     • Qualitative Sources: Data that is not usually represented by numbers. Often based on feeling (e.g. people’s opinion of the danger of an intersection).

5. Skill Category 5: Scale Analysis:

   • Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, and models across geographic scales to explain spatial relationships.

     • Scales of Analysis: The ability to zoom in or out of scale to develop a more complete picture and understanding of the topics being studied.

1.1 Introduction to Maps

Maps

• A map is the most important tool that a geographer can use to help organize complex spatial information. No other tool communicates spatial information like this like a map.

Reference Maps

• Reference Maps: Maps designed for people to refer to for general information about places.

  • Political maps show and label human created boundaries and designations like countries, states, and cities.

  • Physical maps show and label natural features like mountains, rivers, and deserts.

  • Road maps show and label highways, streets, and alleys.

  • Plat maps show and label property lines and details of land ownership.

Thematic Maps

Used to show data about specific topics. Four main types:

1. Choropleth Maps:

   • Use colors or patterns to show data like population density or climate.

   • Example: Darker areas might show higher population rates.

2. Dot Distribution Maps:

   • Use dots to show the location and amount of something (e.g., schools or COVID-19 cases).

   • Each dot represents a specific number of something.

3. Graduated Symbol Maps:

   • Use symbols of different sizes to show amounts.

   • Example: Bigger circles = larger population.

4. Isoline Maps:

   • Use lines to show equal data points, like elevation or temperature.

   • Commonly used for weather maps (e.g., topographic maps).

Cartograms

• Resize areas on a map based on data, not physical size.

• Example: A world population cartogram makes China and India huge, while smaller countries like Canada shrink.

Scale on Maps

Shows the relationship between map distances and real-life distances.

1. Words: Example - "1 inch = 10 miles."

2. Ratio: Example - "1:200,000" means 1 unit = 200,000 real-world units.

3. Graphic Scale: Uses a bar line to measure real distances.

• Small-Scale Maps: Show large areas but with less detail (e.g., a map of the world).

• Large-Scale Maps: Show smaller areas but with more detail (e.g., a city map).

The Global Grid (Latitude and Longitude)

• Latitude: Horizontal lines, measure how far north or south a location is.

  • Equator = 0° latitude.

• Longitude: Vertical lines, measure how far east or west a location is.

  • Prime Meridian = 0° longitude.

• Absolute Location: Uses coordinates (latitude and longitude) to find an exact spot. Example: Mexico City is 19°N, 99°W.

• Relative Location: Describes where something is in relation to something else. Example: Salt Lake City is "just south of the Great Salt Lake."

Spatial Patterns on Maps

Spatial patterns describe how things are arranged on Earth.

1. Location: Where things are.

2. Distance: How far apart things are.

3. Direction: Cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) or intermediate directions (northeast, southwest, etc.).

4. Elevation: How high or low a place is compared to sea level.

Distortion in Map Projections

Maps always distort something because Earth is a sphere. Different projections balance this distortion:

1. Mercator Projection: Good for navigation, but distorts size (Greenland looks massive).

2. Robinson Projection: Balances size and shape, good for general use.

3. Peters Projection: Correct land sizes but distorts shapes.

Distance and Elevation

• Distance: Maps help measure the physical space between two points. For example, the map scale can show how far Mexico City is from Guadalajara.

• Elevation: Refers to the height of a place compared to sea level. Maps with elevation data, like topographic maps, show where land is higher or lower.

  • Example: The mountains in the reference map of Mexico indicate areas of high elevation, which affects climate, travel, and human settlement.

1.2 Geographic Data

Essential Question:

What are different methods of geographical data collection?

Landscape Analysis

• Definition:

  • "Landscape" refers to the condition of the land or a specific area.

  • Example: Desert landscapes or the landscape of Tuscany.

  • Landscape analysis is the process of defining and describing landscapes.

• Observation and Interpretation:

  • Observation:

    • Geographers act as careful observers of phenomena.

    • Field observation: Physically visiting a location to gather data (e.g., photos, measurements, maps, and interviews).

  • Developments in Gathering Data:

    • Technology has improved how geospatial data is collected. Examples include:

      • Satellite imagery: Collects data from space.

      • Aerial photography: Pictures taken from planes or drones.

      • Ground-level photos: Capture detailed visuals.

    • Remote sensing is the use of cameras or sensors mounted on planes or satellites.

  • Interpreting Data:

    • After collecting data, geographers synthesize it to understand the area.

    • Goal: Make conclusions and interpret patterns.

Geospatial Data

• Definition:

  • Geospatial data ties information to a specific place.

  • Includes:

    • Physical features (e.g., mountains, rivers).

    • Human activities and traits (e.g., poverty levels, language spoken).

• Questions Geographers May Ask:

  • Who is moving into/out of an area?

  • What are the causes of movement?

  • How does movement affect the environment?

• Sources of Quantitative Data:

  • Map: Shows life expectancy in different areas.

  • Graph: Displays trends (e.g., life expectancy changes over time).

  • Table: Compares numerical data between countries.

  • Infographic: Combines visuals and data for quick insights.

Obtaining Geospatial Data

• Geographers collect data through:

  • Fieldwork: Observing and recording locations.

    • Census: Data from the population.

    • Interviews: First-hand accounts.

    • Technology: More accurate and efficient methods include surveys, photos, and land measurements.

• Other Sources:

  • Government documents (e.g., treaties).

  • News articles.

  • Smartphone apps (e.g., location services suggest nearby activities).

Key Terms:

• Field Observation: Collecting data in person.

• Remote Sensing: Using cameras or sensors on planes/satellites to record data.

• Aerial Photography: Photos taken from above the ground.

1.3 The Power of Geographic Data

Essential Question:

What are the effects of decisions made using geographical information?

Using Geographic Data to Solve Problems

• Benefits:

  • Helps solve real-world problems like natural disasters or disease outbreaks.

  • Creates maps and visualizations to explain data (e.g., COVID-19 hot spots).

• Examples:

  • COVID-19 Maps: Helped track infections and return students to classrooms safely.

  • Planning: GIS tools analyze data like transportation routes and pollution effects.

• Challenges:

  • Data has limitations (e.g., incomplete data sets).

  • Misinterpretation of maps can cause poor decisions.

Geospatial Technologies

Solutions in Action

• Example:

  • Nuba Mountains, Sudan:

    • Conflict led to a lack of water access and infrastructure.

    • Researchers used geospatial tools and worked with NGOs to improve the community’s water supply.

• Community-Based Solutions:

  • Engage locals to ensure success.

  • Work with organizations like Nuba Water Project to address needs.

Key Terms:

• Geovisualizations: Interactive maps that help people understand data.

• Global Positioning Systems (GPS): Technology for location tracking.

• Remote Sensing: Collecting data from the Earth’s surface using satellites or aircraft.

Chapter 2: Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis

Topics 1.4 to 1.7:

1. Topic 1.4: Spatial Concepts

   • Learning Objective: Define the major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships. (PSO-1A)

2. Topic 1.5: Human-Environmental Interaction

   • Learning Objective: Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships. (PSO-1B)

3. Topic 1.6: Scales of Analysis

   • Learning Objective: Define scales of analysis used by geographers. (PSO-1C)

   • Explain: What scales of analysis reveal. (PSO-1D)

4. Topic 1.7: Regional Analysis

   • Learning Objective: Define different ways that geographers define regions. (SPS-1A)

1.4 Spatial Concepts

• Essential Question: What are the major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships and patterns?

• Spatial Approach:

  1. Focuses on the arrangement of phenomena across the surface of the Earth.

  2. Considers movements of people, changes over time, and perceptions of space/place.

  3. Four-Level Analysis: A method to analyze spatial distributions by asking:

     • Why are things where they are?

     • How did things become distributed this way?

     • What is changing the pattern of distribution?

     • What are the implications of the spatial distribution for people?

• Major Geographic Spatial Concepts:

  1. Location:

     • Identifies where phenomena are on a grid system or relative to another location.

     • Concepts:

       • Absolute Location: Exact coordinates.

       • Relative Location: Position relative to surroundings.

     • Location influences:

       • Connections

       • Accessibility

  2. Place:

     • Refers to specific human and physical characteristics.

     • Characteristics include:

       • Immediate factors (soil type, climate).

       • Broader surroundings (connectivity).

     • Sense of Place:

       • Perception of a place based on personal experience or cultural beliefs.

     • Placelessness:

       • Places without unique characteristics.

     • Toponyms:

       • Place names that provide insights into:

         • Physical geography

         • Historical events

         • Cultural identity

         • Controversial changes in naming (e.g., Denali vs. Mount McKinley).

  3. Distance and Time:

     • Distance can be:

       • Absolute: Measured in miles/kilometers.

       • Relative: Measured in time or connectivity.

     • Time-Space Compression: Shrinking of "distance" due to advances in communication and transportation.

     • Friction of Distance:

       • Concept that distance weakens connections (distance decay).

       • Reduced by technological improvements.

  4. Patterns and Distribution:

     • Refers to spatial arrangement of phenomena.

     • Patterns can be linear, circular, dispersed, etc.

     • Spatial Association:

       • Relationship between distributions of two phenomena.

1.5 Human-Environmental Interaction

• Natural Resources:

  • Materials valued by humans.

• Renewable Resources:

  • Unlimited (e.g., wind, solar energy).

• Nonrenewable Resources:

  • Limited (e.g., oil, coal).

• Sustainability:

  • Practices to ensure resource availability for future generations.

• Land Use:

  • How humans utilize the environment (agriculture, industry).

• Interaction Themes:

  • Environmental determinism vs. Possibilism.

  • Impact of humans on natural landscapes.

• Analysis of Human Responses To:

  • Hazards

  • Climate change

  • Resource scarcity

• Natural Resources:
  Renewable Natural Resources:

  • Air (wind power)

  • Water (surface water, hydroelectric)

  • Solar (sun’s energy)

  • Biomass (organic material like wood, crops, and sewage)

• Non-Renewable Natural Resources:

  • Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal)

  • Earth minerals (gold, copper, silver)

  • Underground fresh water (from deep aquifers)

  • Soil

• Sustainability:

  • Focuses on using resources responsibly to ensure their availability for future generations.

  • Sustainable development aims to address:

    • Resource depletion

    • Pollution

    • Climate change impacts

  • Example: Policies promoting renewable energy use while reducing fossil fuel consumption.

• Land Use:

  • Examines how people use, modify, and organize land.

  • Geographers study patterns and impacts of land use on:

    • Environment

    • Landscapes

    • Societies

  • Natural Environment: Includes plants, air, water, and animals.

  • Built Environment: Human-made artifacts like buildings, roads, and farms.

    • Reflects cultural and physical landscapes.

    • Examples: Varying architectural styles in China vs. Germany.

  • Cultural Landscape: Combination of natural and built environments shaped by human activity.

• Human-Environmental Interaction:

  • Natural Resources: Items from the environment useful to people (e.g., air, water, minerals).

  • Renewable Natural Resources: Unlimited or replenishable (e.g., wind power, solar energy).

  • Non-Renewable Natural Resources: Finite and exhaustible (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals).

  • Sustainability: Using resources to meet current needs while preserving availability for the future.

  • Land Use:

    • Includes agriculture, industry, and urbanization.

    • Reflects cultural and environmental factors.

  • Theories of Human-Environmental Interaction:

    • Environmental Determinism: Argues environment shapes societies (discredited for overemphasis).

    • Possibilism: Emphasizes human creativity and cultural influence over environmental limitations.

    • Example: The Netherlands and its water management systems.

Key Terms

• Spatial Approach: Focuses on spatial patterns and relationships.

• Space: Area between two phenomena.

• Location: Absolute or relative.

• Place: Human and physical characteristics of an area.

• Region: Defined areas with shared characteristics.

• Site/Situation: Physical characteristics of a location (site) and its surroundings (situation).

• Sense of Place: Personal or cultural meaning of a location.

• Toponyms: Place names.

• Distance Decay: Connection weakens with distance.

• Time-Space Compression: Distance "shrinks" with technology.

• Flow: Movement of people, goods, and ideas.

• Patterns/Distribution: Spatial arrangement of phenomena.

• Spatial Association: Linked distributions of phenomena.

1.6 Scales of Analysis

• Essential Question: What are scales of analysis and what do they reveal to geographers?

Geographic/Relative Scale: The area of the world being studied

• Zooming in and out of maps that use different scales. 

Aggregation: When geographers organize data into different scales.

• Allows data to be more easily mapped or organized in a chart or graph

1.7 Regional Analysis

• Essential Question: What are ways geographers define regions.

Regions: An area with boundaries, unifying characteristics, and are created by people

• Formal/Uniform/Homogeneous Regions are united by many traits

  • Political, like the USA

  • Physical, such as the Sahara

  • Cultural, such as southwestern Nigeria, an area where the Yoruba language is spoken

  • Economic, such as the Gold Coast of Africa (Ghana), which exports gold

• Functional Regions are organized around a focal point

  • Pizza delivery areas; the pizza shop is the node

  • A state or a country with the capital city as the node

  • An airport is a node, the locations the flights connect form a functional region

  • A functional region must include a flow of some phenomenon across the networks that unite the region.

• Perceptual/Vernacular Regions are defined by the informal sense people ascribe to them 

  • The South

  • Upstate New York

  • The Middle East

AP Human Geography Ten Large Regions

• North America

• South America

• Europe

• Africa

• Asia

• Oceania

• Central Asia

• Middle East

• Southeast Asia

• Caribbean

World Subregions

Terms: