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Chapter 9: Political Geography
State Creation
Each state, large or small, is a sovereign unit.
Defining the Nation State
Nation is a group of people sharing a common culture and an attachment to some territory; a term difficult to define objectively.
Humans are divided into formally demarcated political units known as states.
State is a body that governs life within it territory, encouraging cultural homogenization.
A nation-state is defined as group of people who self-identify as a group (a nation) and who occupy a spatially defined territory with the necessary infrastructure and social and political institutions (a state).
It is supposed that nations are in some way natural groupings of people, but the reality is that most nations have been constructed.
Nationalism
Nationalism assumes that the nation-state is the natural political unit and that any other basis for state delimitation is inappropriate
Explaining Nationalism
Common suggestions from European Map history
nation states emerged in Europe in response to the rise of nationalist political philosophies during the eighteenth century
humans want to be close to people of similar cultural background
the creation of nation-states was a necessary and logical component of the transition from feudalism to capitalism
nationalism is a logical accompaniment of economic growth based on expanding technologies
principle of one state/one culture arises from the collapse of local communities and the need for effective communication within a larger unit.
Nationalism in the Contemporary World
Despite the transition to nation states, our contemporary political map still includes many states that contain two or more nations.
Nationalistic ideology has been clearly articulated in the context of anti-colonial movements, but the only substantial change to the European-imposed boundaries is the 2011 creation of South Sudan.
Many multinational states are politically unstable, prone to changes of government and/ or expressions of “minority nation” discontent.
Canada and Belgium are examples of politically uncertain binational states: both include more than one language group and have experienced internal stresses related to the differing political aspirations of these groups.
Exploration and Colonialism
Exploration
Principal elements in the process of exploration
Colonialism
Colonialism refers to the process by which one nation exercises near complete control over another country which they have settled and taken over.
Reasons behind colonial expansions:
often defined as “God, glory, and greed”.
also included various changes in Europe involving the prevailing feudal system and economic competition at the time.
the fact that Europe was the region that initiated global movements appears to be related to the demands of the economic growth that began in the fifteenth century, as well as to internal social and political complexity, turmoil, and competition.
Reasons for the colonial fever that swept Europe, in the nineteenth century include:
the ambitions of individual officials, special business interests, the value of territory for strategic reasons, and national prestige
Colonialism ended effectively ended following World War II.
Introducing Geopolitics (and Geopolitik)
Geopolitics the study of the importance of space in understanding international relations.
Geopolitical Theories
British geographer H.J. Mackinder was the first one to formulate geopolitical theory, through heartland theory.
It explained how geography and history had interacted over the past thousand years,
it had strong environmental determinist overtones that reflect British concerns about perceived Russian threats to British colonies in Asia, especially India.
Mackinder argued that location and physical environment were key variables in any explanation of world power distribution.
These ideas influenced the rise of geopolitik.
It focuses on the state as an organism, on the subordinate role played by individual members of a state, and on the right of a state to expand to acquire sufficient living space.
German interest in geopolitik resulted in a general disillusionment in the Western world with all geopolitical issues.
Despite this disillusionment, several scholars continued to present their views on the global distribution of power.
Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Centrifugal forces tear a state apart.
Most common forces are those involving internal divisions in language and religion that lead to a weak raison d’être or state identity.
Centripetal forces bind a state together.
The most common centripetal force is the presence of a powerful raison d’être: a distinct and widely accepted state identity.
Boundaries
Boundaries mark the limits of a state’s sovereignty. They are “lines” drawn where states meet or where states territorial waters end.
A state’s stability often reflects the nature of its boundaries.
The characteristics that give identity to a nation, such as language, are defined as its boundaries.
Boundaries can be geometric or subsequent.
Rivers are common boundaries that are easily demarcated and surveyed, but they are generally areas of contact rather than of separation and so tend to make poor boundaries.
In some areas, groups have erected barriers to serve as physical obstructions preventing others from entering.
Divided States
Some states are divided into two or more separate parts; this increases the likelihood of boundary problems.
Building on various geopolitical ideas, two contradictory trends in contemporary world arise.
Firstly, there is evidence to suggest that the number of states will continue to increase from the current to too many because many have internal divisions.
Secondly, there is evidence that some states are willing to sacrifice aspects of their independent national identity as they join with other states to form some degree of commonality.
Unstable States
If there are internal divisions, state stability is threatened by;
concordance between a nation and state (two reasons)
internal ethnic divisions (one reason)
Irredentism involves one state's seeking the return from another (neighbouring one) state of people and/or territory formerly belonging to it.
It is common in parts of the Balkan region, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa.
Nation and State Discordance in Africa
Evident in Africa.
Examples include; the Southern African microstates of Lesotho and Swaziland.
Lesotho might join South Africa and seeking this annexation is a popular idea because it is a dysfunctional country still suffering from HIV/AIDS.
Colonial activities in Africa erased many earlier earlier states that were based on national identity.
Which include Hausa and Fulani nations in Nigeria, the Fon in Benin and the Buganda in Uganda.
European neglect of African national identities is a prime cause of African nationalism and contemporary instability in many African states.
State boundaries, shapes and sizes, then, are colonial creations reflecting past European rather than past or current African interests.
In consequence, Africa is characterized by an inappropriate political fragmentation.
Some states, have a high degree of contiguity; some are very small in size and/or population; some have have awkward shapes and and long often environmentally difficult boundaries.
Due to a political change in 2011, South Sudan was formed, representing a victory for a secessionist movement following a long conflict.
Sudan was was an instance of illogical colonial boundaries, with the north being Arabic speaking and most of the population being Muslim, while the south includes a variety of African languages with the most being Christian or practising a traditional religion.
Nation and States in Europe
In Europe, states correspond more closely to national identity.
Rokkan (1980) identities four functional prerequisites for the existence of state
economy
political power
law
culture
It argues that the tensions between European cores and their peripheries reflect the fact that peripheries have less political power, less developed legal structures, and less dominant cultures.
Identified two axes;
a north south cultural axis from the Baltic to Italy. (Protestant in the the north and Catholic in the south.
an east-west economic axis.
South Asian Conflicts
Factor behind these tensions are a complex distribution of ethnic groups and associated religious rivalries (Hindu-Muslim rivalries).
After the withdrawal of British Empire in 1947, the two new states of Pakistan and India were born.
The intention was for India to be predominantly Hindu and Pakistan to be predominantly Muslim, with boundaries to be imposed where none had existed before.
This partition divided several well established regions - primarily Kashmir and the Punjab in the northwest and Bengal in the the northeast.
Around 7.4 million Hindus moved from Pakistan to India and around 7.2 million Muslims moved from India to Pakistan.
During this migration millions died in the chaotic redistribution of population.
State of Pakistan was divided into East and West Pakistan, separated by 1600 km of Indian territory.
In 1971, during a fight with Bengali guerillas, East Pakistan was formed as an independent state today known as Bangladesh.
Till date there are ongoing conflicts, notably
with India over Kashmir
South of Himalayas in the Punjab, Sikhs aspire to independence from India and the creation of their own state, Khalistan.
In South Asia, there are conflicts over various issues, primarily;
ethnic group war against one another and in other cases the conflicts have international dimensions.
For example, tensions between India and China
The Role of the State
Forms of Government
Democracy implies five features;
regular free and fair elections
universal suffrage
a government that is open and accountable to the public
freedom for state citizens to organise and communicate with each other
a just society offering equal opportunity to all citizens
Monarchy is the institution of rule over a state by the hereditary head of a family: monarchists are those who favour this system.
Oligarchy is rule by an elite group of people, typically the wealthy.
Dictatorship is an oppressive, anti-democratic form of government in which the leader is often backed by the military.
Anarchism is a political philosophy that rejects the state and argues that social order is possible without a state.
It emphasizes on individualism or socialism.
It rejects the concept of the state and the associated division of society into rulers and ruled
Socialist Less Developed States
General characteristics of socialism
They aim to remove any all features of capitalism, primarily private ownership of resources, resource allocation by the marketplace, and the class structure associated.
They have power, in principle to make substantial changes to society.
Socialism has been able to exert its most significant and continuing influence in Asia. Four major countries in Asia have have socialist or communist governments: China, Laos, Vietnam and North Korea.
In many less developed countries, socialism has a strong anti-colonial, nationalist components.
It is fair to say, even in capitalist states, individual behaviour in the less developed world is frequently determined by larger state considerations.
Exercising State Power
In capitalist countries, state power is exercised through various institutions and organisations; this state apparatus includes the political and legal systems, the military or police forces to enforce the state's power, and mechanisms such as a central bank to regulate economic affairs.
Inequalities in the distribution of public goods often reflect government efforts to influence an electorate prior to an election.
One of the most critical issues concerning the power exercised by individual states is the need for the international cooperation in solving global environmental problems.
State powers is needed to ensure that private sector industries do not harm the environment. Some international authority is needed to ensure that individual power exists.
For this there are two main problems;
firstly, governments in more developed countries countries may be unwilling to protect the global environment which might result to loss of jobs and wealth.
secondly, governments in less developed countries contend that they cannot afford to implement environmentally appropriate policies.
Elections: Geography Matters
Legitimacy of Elections and Voter Turnout
Voter turnout differs everywhere. Recent elections in Turkmenistan, Rwanda, and Russia reported voter turnouts in excess of 95 percent. Free elections in Australia regularly have 95 percent turnouts, at least partly because it is one of about 30 countries where voting is compulsory.
Countries which mainly have low voter turnout are several African and Southeastern European Countries.
Voter and Place
Class is a dominant influence on voting behaviour.
Local influence on voting:
Sectional Effects
Long-standing geographic cleavages require any successful presidential candidate to build an appropriate geographic coalition; these cleavages are so factored into the electoral college system that, to be elected president, votes alone are not enough—they must be in the right place.
Environmental Effects
During a british election it was found that, the higher the level of unemployment in an area, the more successful Labor party candidate.
Candidate incumbency
Campaign Effects
Vote switching
Contextual Effects
Individuals can be influenced in their voting decisions by their social contacts.
Voting is influenced by both class and place, any successful political party needs to develop a strong social and spatial base and any meaningful analysis of elections needs to consider both factors.
The Geography of Peace and War
Conflicts
Can be grouped into five categories:
traditional conflicts between states
E.g three India - Pakistan war
independence movements against foreign domination or occupation
E.g hostilities in Indonesia, the Belgian Congo and Mozambique
secession conflicts
E.g in Tibet, Biafra and others
civil wars that aim to change regimes
E.g China, Cuba, Bolivia and others
action taken against states that support terrorism
Eg. US led invasion in Afghanistan
Terrorism
Is the use or threat of violence by a group against a state or other group, with the general goal of intimidation designed to achieve some specific political outcome.
Terrorists or Freedom Fighters?
Difficulty in defining terrorism reflects a fundamental contradiction, namely, that many people labelled as terrorists by those whom they attack self-identify as freedom fighters and are considered as such by those whose interests they represent.
Two notable personalities are;
former prime minister of Israel Menachem Begin
Nelson Mandela, the first post-apartheid president of South Africa
In recent years, terrorist activities were a response to national policies implied by various powers.
Coping with terrorist organizations is difficult because, unlike states, they are not spatially tethered components of the political landscape.
This does not mean, that they function in a geographic vacuum. Most terrorist groups are supported, at least informally, by states—hence the American-initiated invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq following the 9/11 attacks, although in the latter instance no linkages were ever proven, any more than weapons of mass destruction (another American government rationale for the invasion of Iraq) were found.
Competing for Resources
It is noted that conflict over resources is central to several ongoing or recent civil wars and is predicted that resource shortages will play a key role in future conflicts
There may be increased competition for access to oil and gas, water, and commodities such as timber, copper, gold, and precious stones.
In such a scenario, the areas containing those resources; many of which are located in contested and unstable areas of the less developed world—would be major sites of conflict.
One cause of tension in many parts of the world is disagreement about precisely what territory belongs to a country and therefore who has the right to access its natural resources.
The Geography of Nuclear Weapon
There are nine nuclear powers: United States, Russia, China, France, Britain, India, Israel, Pakistan, and (possibly) North Korea.
As more countries develop technology for nuclear power, it seems likely world will confront more crisis about their nuclear weapon intentions.
Nuclear war would likely mean national suicide for any country involved, and a large-scale nuclear war would affect all environments.
Large areas of the northern hemisphere would likely experience sub-zero temperatures for several months, regardless of the season.
Low temperatures and reductions in sunlight would adversely affect agricultural productivity.
A nuclear winter would result in many deaths from hypothermia and starvation.