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Lecture Notes: Research Methods and Related Topics

What is Research?

  • A careful, objective, systematic, and structured process for solving problems or answering questions.

  • Begins with identification of a question to answer or problem to solve.

    Example Questions:

    • How can athletes avoid concussions?

    • What lifestyle factors elevate or reduce risks of different cancers and CVD?

    • What approaches work best for teaching children movement skills?

    • How can the elderly decrease the risk of falls?

    • What interventions can best reverse the obesity epidemic?

    Types of reasoning:

  • Deductive reasoning:

    • Uses syllogisms, with a conclusion drawn from two premises.

    • Example: Premise 1: All knee injuries are painful. Premise 2: Trevor has injured his knee. Conclusion: Trevor’s knee is painful.

  • Inductive reasoning:

    • A general conclusion is drawn from a specific observation.

    • Example: Premise: My dog is cute. Conclusion: All dogs are cute.

Scientific Method:

  • Step 1: Understanding the problem area

  • Step 2: Identifying the research question

    Must be stated in terms of independent and dependent variables:

    • Independent variable: what the researcher wants to study

    • Dependent variable: what the researcher will measure to provide evidence

    Example: What are the effects of sleep deprivation on reaction time?

  • Step 3: Formulating a hypothesis

    Definition: Research hypothesis — an educated guess as to the outcome of the study

    Example: We hypothesize that reaction time will be significantly longer following 24 hours of sleep deprivation

  • Step 4: Designing methods for the study

    Includes:

    • Statistical tests to be used to analyze the data

    • Research design (number of groups, number of tests)

    • Selection criteria for study participants

    • Number of participants needed

    • Research protocol (what each participant will do)

    • Equipment, instruments, or surveys to be used

    Internal Validity: extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to manipulation of the independent variable

    External Validity: extent to which results can be generalized to the population represented by the participants

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  • The Scientific Method: Step 5

  • Step 5 content: Collecting the data

  • Data characteristics:

    • Data are recorded observations (plural)

    • Data should be collected objectively and using the same procedures

    • All participants should receive the same instructions

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  • The Scientific Method: Step 6

  • Step 6 content: Analyzing data with statistical tools

  • Note: We’ll spend much of the semester learning these tools

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  • The Scientific Method: Step 7

  • Step 7 content: Interpreting/discussing the results

  • Key questions:

    • Do the results support the research hypothesis?

    • How do the results compare to the results of related studies?

    • Are there practical applications or implications for clinical practice?

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  • The Scientific Method: Step 8

  • Step 8 content: Deriving conclusions from results

  • Conclusions should include a take-home message and be able to generalize the results in a succinct form

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  • Research cycle (early stages):

    • Make observations

    • Read related research literature

    • Formulate research questions

    • Formulate research hypotheses

    • Plan and conduct study

    • Analyze data and evaluate results

    • Results suggest a follow-up study

    • A new research interest emerges

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  • Research cycle (variation):

    • Make observations

    • Read related research literature

    • Formulate research questions

    • Formulate research hypotheses

    • Plan and conduct study

    • Analyze data and evaluate results

    • Results suggest a follow-up study

    • A new research interest emerges

    • Conduct pilot testing

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  • Scientific theory

  • Characteristics:

    • Strength depends on the extent to which the theory has been tested under different conditions

    • Can be improved and refined as more research is conducted

    • Not a guess or a hunch, not an educated guess, not a hypothesis

  • Definition: An explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on numerous research studies all confirming a given phenomenon

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  • Section header: Types of Research

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  • Types of Research (continued):

    • Basic Research: Conducted purely for the discovery of new knowledge, with little regard for an immediate application

    • Applied Research: Driven by the need to find a solution to a specific problem

  • Key distinction: Basic vs Applied — the question is more about discovery vs practical application

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  • Quantitative vs Qualitative Research (basic distinction):

    • Dependent variables are numerical (Quantitative)

    • Dependent variables are non-numerical (Qualitative)

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  • Quantitative Research

  • Qualitative Research

  • Key features:

    • Quantitative enables description of existing conditions, analysis of relationships among variables, and study of cause-effect relationships

    • Begins with one or more research questions and related hypotheses testable via numerical data and statistics

    • Qualitative involves observations through on-site note taking, videotape analysis, in-depth interviews, questionnaires, etc.

    • Qualitative enables ongoing formulation of hypotheses and methodology as the study progresses since characteristics of the setting and participants may influence data collection

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  • Experimental Research

  • Goals: Confirms or refutes cause-effect relationships; aims at achieving understanding; involves measuring the effects of the independent variables on the dependent variables

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  • Translational Research

  • Focus: Studies where a finding from basic research is first investigated in humans

  • Rationale: Common for clinical applications to start with animal studies to ensure safety/efficacy before applying to humans

  • Example: The effect of Ca^{2+} channel blockers on heart rate in patients with Down Syndrome

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  • Descriptive Research

  • Purpose: Provides a detailed, useful description of characteristics of a population, group, or individual

  • Modalities: May be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods

  • Example: Case study focusing on an elite gymnast’s biomechanical deficiencies following ACL reconstructive surgery

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  • Correlational Research

  • Nature: A form of descriptive research

  • Purpose: Evaluate relationships between two or more variables; sometimes used for prediction

  • Example: Prediction of lung cancer risk at follow-up using CT screening data; training/validation study of a deep learning method

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  • Analytical Research

  • Nature: A form of descriptive, qualitative research

  • Method: Systematic evaluation of existing information to advance new understanding

  • Special form: Meta-analysis — a quantitative method for analyzing a body of literature

  • Example: Effect of Physical Exercise-Based Rehabilitation on Long COVID: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis