_MDPARAS__Midterms_Exam

Lesson 1: Introduction to Antibiotic Resistance and One Health

1.1 Understanding Antibiotic Resistance

• Definition: Bacteria develop the ability to resist the effects of antibiotics, rendering treatments ineffective.

• Cause: Prolonged exposure to antibiotics can lead to non-effective treatments of bacterial diseases due to resistant strains.

• Relation to COVID-19: Initially suggested corona virus infections could lead to bacterial co-infections, confirmed viral in nature requiring antiretrovirals instead.

1.2 One Health Approach

• Concept: Integrative approach that encompasses human health, animal health, and environmental health to create a unified strategy for controlling diseases.

1.2.1 Key Principles

1. Shared Ecosystems: Microbes can infect humans and animals similarly due to shared environments.

2. Intersectoral Collaboration: Efforts must span across human, animal, and environmental health sectors to effectively manage health issues.

3. Data Sharing: Epidemiological data must be shared among sectors to respond effectively to outbreaks.

1.2.2 Areas of Work

• Food Safety: Ensures that foodborne pathogens are monitored and controlled.

• Zoonoses Control: Focus on diseases transmitted from animals to humans.

• Combatting Antibiotic Resistance: Coordination across sectors is crucial to tackle this emerging threat.

Lesson 2: Parasitology Introduction

2.1 Parasite Identification

• Identification based on morphological characteristics, especially eggs and ova.

2.2 Human Infections Linked with Parasites

2.2.1 Significant Diseases and Statistics

• T. trichiura: 1.22 billion infections, significant morbidity

• A. lumbricoides: 740 million infections, significant deaths - around 60,000 annually.

• Other notable parasites:

  • Hookworms: 740 million infections, 65,000 deaths.

  • Schistosomes: 200 million infections, 20 million symptomatic cases.

  • Malaria: 298-659 million infections, 1-2 million deaths.

2.3 Major Parasite Categories

• Human Deaths by Parasitic Diseases

  • Helminthes: 4.46 billion infected annually.

  • Protozoans: E. histolytica (50 million infections, causing amoebic dysentery)

Lesson 3: Life Cycle of Parasites

3.1 Transmission Mechanisms

• Parasites must adapt to ensure transmission and survive external environmental stresses.

3.2 Life Cycle Complexity

• Simple Life Cycle: No intermediate host; involves direct transmission to definitive host.

• Complex Life Cycle: Requires multiple hosts for asexual and sexual reproduction stages.

Lesson 4: Zoonotic Parasites

4.1 Definition and Examples

• Definition: Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans.

• Key diseases: Rabies, Leptospirosis, Zika virus, etc.

4.2 Transmission Routes

• Vectors: Tiny organisms (mosquitoes, ticks) that spread parasites.

• Reservoirs: Host species that carry zoonotic pathogens

• Pathogen Release: Defecation, bite wounds, or skin contact with infected animals.

Lesson 5: Life Cycle of E. histolytica and Protozoan Infections

5.1 Disease Overview

• Primarily causes amoebic dysentery; invasive and often asymptomatic.

5.2 Life Cycle Stages

• Infective Stage: Cysts ingested in contaminated food/water.

• Diagnostic Stage: Cysts and trophozoites passed in feces.

Lesson 6: Sarcocystis sp.

6.1 Overview

• Intracellular protozoa causing sarcosporidiosis, requiring two hosts for its life cycle: herbivores (intermediate) and carnivores (definitive).

6.2 Pathogenesis

• Pathogenic effects vary with location and number of cysts.

Lesson 7: Babesia sp. and Their Implications

7.1 Disease Mechanism

• Transmitted via ticks, infecting red blood cells.

7.2 Clinical Features of Babesia Infections

• Symptoms range from mild flu-like symptoms to severe hemolytic anemia.

Lesson 8: Platyhelminthes Overview

8.1 Classes of Flatworms

• Cestoda (tapeworms) and Trematoda (flukes) with important medical implications.

8.2 Features and Life Cycles

• Life cycle involves multiple hosts; eggs released in feces of definitive hosts.

Lesson 9: Liver Flukes and Tapeworms

9.1 Major Species and Life Cycles

• Fasciola spp. and Taenia spp. present significant health threats through contaminated food/water.

9.2 Diagnosis and Treatment

• Use of praziquantel and avoidance of undercooked meat to prevent infections.