1. Belgian party system (fragmentation and causes)

fragmentation, when? second half 20th c = after WWII

consequences for coalition ability and duration

causes:

1. electoral system

   • universal voting

   • PR system (proportional representation)

   • large electoral districts (provincial level)

   • = opportunities for smaller & challenger parties

2. splitting of traditional parties

   • 1960s-70s: growing linguistic tensions (also withing parties)

     • success of regionalist parties

     • traditional parties split

   • = no more ‘unitary’ Belgian parties (except for PVDA-PTB nowadays)

3. electoral decline traditional parties

4. electoral successes of new parties

   • along old cleavages: regionalist parties and communist party

   • along new cleavages: green parties, radical-right parties

5. electoral volatility

   • voters are less ‘loyal’ to parties

   • = opportunity for challenger parties

but still: relatively stable?

• today 6/7 party families (with counterparts in each linguistic community)

2. Belgian parties (overview, organization, funding)

overview

christian democrats

fusion of 4 building blocks: conservative people, formers union, small holders union, union workers

unitary period

• old catholic party (19th c)

  • conservative (economic) ideology

  • but: emergence christian labor movement

• after WWII; growing linguistic tensions in christian democratic party

Flanders

• Christian people’s party (CVP)

  • dominant party in Flanders until new century

  • ideology: socio-economic center (-right), moral-ethic conservatism, Flemish autonomy

• 2000s: Christian Democratic and Flemish (cd&v)

  • from leading force to junior coalition partner

Wallonia

• Parti Social Chrétien (PSC)

  • much smaller

  • but often coalition partner (stronger Flemish sister party, ideological center)

• 2000s: centre democrat humaine (CDH)

  • not christian anymore

  • more leftist on socio-economic and moral-ethical issues

  • but: continuing decline

• 2022: les engagés

socialists

unitary period

• Belgian workers’ party (BWP)

  • from outsider to frequent coalition party

  • industrial areas

• 1960s-70s: growing regionalism in (Walloon) labor movement, resulted in formal split

Flanders

• socailist party( SP)

  • smaller than PS

  • more pragmatic/central

  • electoral decline

• 2000s: Social Progressive Alternative (SP.a)

  • broadening towards other progressive parties

  • succes = short term

• 2021: Vooruit

  • attempt to further broaden socialist ‘movement’

  • progressive & socio-economic center-left

  • linguistic issues: pragmatism

Wallonia

• Parti Socialiste

  • biggest party in South

  • more militant socialism (closer ties with trade unions)

  • almost continuously in government since 90s

• but: growing competition from PTB-PVDA: radical-left opposition against PS as a governing party

liberals

unitary period

• Old liberal party (19th c)

  • decline due to electoral reforms

• 1960s: ideological repositioning

  • de-emphasize anti-catholic positions

  • emphasize economic liberalism → attract center-right catholic voters

• 1970s: linguistic tensions (BRU) lead to formal split

Flanders

• party for freedom and progress

  • limited influence despite electoral success

  • dominance of Christian democrats & socilaists

• 1990: Flemish liberals and democrats

  • more influence for citizens

  • 1999-2007: purple-green coalitions: progressive reforms

  • internal conflicts → electoral losses

• 2007: Open VLD

  • no real success, but often in government (current PM De Croo)

Wallonia

• Parti Reformateur Liberal (PRL)

  • stable party in South

  • but generally smaller than socialists

• 2000s: Mouvement Réformateur (MR)

  • merger with FDF, but breaks apart later

  • electoral success in 2007 (largest Francophone party)

regionalists

Flanders

• 1950s: volksunie (People’s union)

  • democratic, pluralist party (break with early Flemish nationalism)

  • successful in 1960s-1970s

  • but internally divided

    • moderate vs radicals

    • rightist vs leftist communist policies

  • electoral decline → referendum + split in 2001

• New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) (2001-now)

  • large electoral successes since 2010

  • positions

    • Flemish autonomy

    • centre-right economic positions

    • strict migration policies

Wallonia

• Rassemblement Wallon (RW)

  • main demand: socio-economic autonomy

    • Walloon economy (industry) in crisis

  • (limited) success soon followed by decline

    • conflicts radical left-wing base and pragmatic leaders

  • falls apart and integrates into Francophone socialist/liberal party

Brussels

• Front Démocratique des Francophones (FDF)

  • defend position of Francophone inhabitants of Brussels

  • still today: important in Brussels

    • also few seats in federal parliament (pre-electoral coalitions with MR)

    • 2011: end alliance MR

• démocrate federaliste independent (Défi)

green parties

Flanders

• 1970s: AGALEV (Anders GAan LEven - live differently)

  • gradually secures position in Flanders

  • leftist, progressive, ecologism

  • less successful than Francophone sister party

• 1999: Dioxine crisis

  • electoral high score

  • participates in purple-green government

• next elections: electoral defeat

  • no more federal MPs

  • next elections: new name (Groen) + recovery

• despite trauma of government participation: coalition partner 2019

Wallonia

• 1970s: écolo

  • one of the largest green parties in Europe

  • similar evolution as AGALEV/Groen

• 1999: enters government after dioxine crisis

  • next elections: electoral defeat (still some MPs)

• takes unitl 2019 to re-enter federal government

• more governing experience on regional/local level

populist radical right

Flanders

• 1978: Flemish Block (VB)

  • break-away from Volksunie

  • radical Flemish-nationalism

• radical right, anti-migration discourse

  • breakthrough in 1991: Black Sunday

    • reaction: cordon sanitaire

  • 2004: convicted for racism (new name: Flemish interest, Vlaams Belang)

  • populist/anti-establishment party

  • comeback after dissappointing results 2014

Wallonia?

• absence radical-right party

• past: Front National

  • weak organized

  • inconsistent limited electoral results

  • internal disputes, splits…

a new unitary party? PTB-PVDA

• breakthrough 2019 elections

  • workers’ party of Belgium (Parti du Travail de Belgique)

  • radical-left, communist ideology

  • anti-elitist, populist style

  • important competitor for Francophone socialists

  • only unitary party: one (federal) party president

• new?

  • founded in 1979 (student/workers protest movement)

  • before that: already communist party of Belgium

    • most successful right after WWII

    • electoral decline 1950s

orgnization: a partitocracy

geographical subdivisions

1. national leadership

   • policy-making at federal and regional/community level

2. provincial sections

   • recruitment and candidate selection

3. local sections

   • local electoral lists, campaigns, coalitions, decision-making

but: decreasing influence of provincial/local sections

hierarchy and centralization of power

• strong party leader

• party bureau: powerful decision-making body

• party council: decision-making in between congresses

• party congres: several types

  • ideological

  • statutory

  • government participation

party president: power players of Belgian politics

• multiple roles

  • kingmaker: selects personnel for top positions

  • coordinator: between party-ministers-legislators, between federal entities

  • negotiator: coalition formation

  • supervisor: congruence between policy and party program

  • spokesperson: main spearhead, media contact…

  • decision maker: responsible for party positioning and strategy

• elected by party-members

• very powerful

• not leader of parliamentary party group

a partitocracy:

• = parties dominate every aspect of political decision-making

  • electoral choice (candidate system)

  • behaviour of members of parliament (party discipline)

  • behaviour of ministers (selection, deselection, coordination)

  • also appointments of top civil servantzs in public administrators

• functional to a certain degree?

  • complex political system + fragmented coalitions

  • strong parties increase political stability

party membership → in decline but growing influence

• international trend: more formal influence for party members (party leader selection, drafting party program…)

• in practice: tight control and top-down management

funding

from corruption scandals towards public funding and transparence

• corruption scandals 1980s

  • parties receive money from companies in exchange for policy influence

  • leads to resignation (and conviction) of several politicians

  • leads to party finance reform (less private donations, more public funds)

• party finance reform (law Dhoore)

  1. limitations on private gifts

  2. increased public funding

  3. limitations on campaign expences

  4. transparancy, open financial accounts and control (but by parties themselves)

high public funding

• private funding: membership fees and gifts by individuals (strictly limited)

• public funding

  1. subsidies to parliamentary party groups (fixed amount per MP)

     • theory: for parliamentary staff

     • practice: centralized by parties

  2. direct state subsidies

     • fixed amount (only if at least 1 MP)

     • variable amount (per voter in the previous elections)

• → both at federal and regional level

• used for:

  • campaigns

  • internal organization

  • accumulation of financial assets

• ongoing discussions

  • too much?

  • objective control on expenses?

  • closing of the electoral market?

    • difficult for new parties

    • partial cause of relative party system stability in Belgium?