PSYCH 10.17

Definition: Stereotypical bias refers to how one's feelings and views can distort memory recall, particularly concerning race, gender, and ethnicity.
Example: Studies have shown that typical African American names are often inaccurately remembered as being associated with basketball players, while typical white names are more frequently linked to politicians.

Definition: Egocentric bias is the tendency to enhance and distort memories of past events to make oneself look better.
Explanation: This bias protects one's fragile ego; individuals recall events in ways that favor their self-image.

Definition: Hindsight bias is the inclination to view outcomes as inevitable after they have occurred, leading one to believe they "knew it all along."
Example: Captain Hindsight from South Park is a fictional representation of this bias, showcasing the tendency to believe one could predict the outcome retrospectively.

Explanation: Persistence involves the repeated recall of unwanted memories, often discussed within the context of repression.
Relevant observation: Veterans of military conflicts may frequently and uncontrollably remember traumatic experiences, indicating a struggle against persistence.

Not all forgetting is due to memory decay; sometimes it stems from failure to retrieve information.
Types of Interference:
- Proactive Interference: Old information obstructs the recall of new information.
- Example: Remembering the combination of a high school locker can interfere with recalling the combination for a new gym locker.
- Real-life relevance: Times when studying feels ineffective (like sounding out as "Charlie Brown's teacher") can signal proactive interference.
- Retroactive Interference: New information hinders the recall of older information.
- Example: A new email address may interfere with the memory of an older one.

Release from Proactive Interference: To alleviate proactive interference, switching topics can help.
- Study example (Ericsson's research in the 1980s): Participants memorized three lists of professionals with decreasing recall due to proactive interference. A switch to a different category (e.g., fruits) improved recall.
Study Strategy: Utilizing a range of topics in study sessions can prevent interference. Recommended study blocks
- Optimal length: 45-75 minutes.

Rehearsal: Defined as the conscious repetition of material to be remembered. Although time-consuming, it is a foundational strategy.
Chunking: Breaking down information into manageable sizes to enhance comprehension and recall.
- Example: Remembering a nine-digit Social Security number requires chunking into smaller sets.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Engage with the meaning of new information, linking it to previously stored information. Creating associations enhances retention.
- Example: Using mnemonic devices to remember sequences (e.g., the knuckle method for months with 31 days).

Use semantic encoding to strengthen memory.
Generate personal examples to improve retention, despite initial skepticism about their effectiveness.
Awareness of memory decay over time, as demonstrated through Ebbinghaus's experiments.
- Notably, 70% of learned information is forgotten within 24 hours if not reinforced or overlearned.
Better approach: Consistent spaced learning (1 hour daily versus 6 hours in one day).

Reduce distractions (social media, TV) while studying.
Real-life findings: Multitasking, like checking social media while studying, can reduce study efficiency significantly (up to a 20-minute recovery time).
Importance of physical exercise in managing stress and maintaining cognitive performance. Simple activities, like brisk walking, can effectively reduce cortisol levels.
Prioritize sleep, which is crucial for memory consolidation, choosing it over additional study time. The brain consolidates memories primarily during sleep.

Use mnemonic devices actively to assist in remembering complex information.
Reviewed ineffective study practices (e.g., rereading, highlighting) that yield low utility.
Highlighted effective study techniques:
- Distributed practice: Spread out studying rather than cramming.
- Self-explaining: Teaching material to peers helps reinforce understanding.
- Testing effect: Actively recalling information strengthens learning more than passive reading.

Learning retention correlates with the total time spent on studies.
Ebbinghaus showed more time spent initially correlates with less time needed subsequently.

Key principle: Study in conditions congruent with recall contexts for improved memory retention.
- Mentioned research by Alan Baddeley's study involving divers; congruence between encoding and recall locations produced higher recall rates.
State-dependent learning also emphasized; matching emotional or mental states between learning and recalling improves outcomes.

Background media can significantly distract and impair learning. Research demonstrated that participants' attention was drawn more towards distracting media than they realized during study tasks.