Chapter_13.Part2

Chapter 13: Social Psychology

Overview

• Social psychology is the study of how individuals influence and are influenced by others.

• Key Themes:

  • Interpersonal Behaviour

  • Interpersonal Attraction

  • Interpersonal Perception

  • Interpersonal Influence

Interpersonal Perception

• Social Cognition: The processes involved in understanding others.

• Humans infer thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and motivations about others.

• Types of Inferences:

  • Category-based inferences: Rely on generalizations from social categories.

  • Target-based inferences: Focus on specific individuals.

Stereotyping

Problems with Category-Based Inferences

• Stereotyping: Drawing inferences based on category membership.

• Properties leading to misuse:

  • Inaccuracy: Generalizations may not reflect reality.

  • Overuse: Oversimplification of diverse groups.

  • Self-perpetuation: Stereotypes reinforcing themselves over time.

  • Unconsciousness & Automaticity: Often done without awareness.

Inaccuracies in Stereotyping

• Stereotypes can be inaccurate due to:

  • Personal interactions

  • Media (TV, social media, songs)

  • Observational biases.

Correlation Errors

• Misleading correlations perceived when rare behaviors co-occur with specific groups, leading to incorrect assumptions.

Overuse of Stereotypes

• Underestimating Variability: Ignoring differences within a category.

• Overestimating Similarities: Assuming all members exhibit similar traits.

• Seesaw Effects on Perception: Can distort perceptions of color and distance.

Self-Perpetuation of Stereotypes

• Stereotypes can become resistant to change:

  • Behavioral confirmation: Individuals may act in ways that confirm existing stereotypes.

  • Stereotype threat: Anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes can impact performance.

  • Perceptual confirmation: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

  • Subtyping: Creating subcategories to maintain stereotypes.

Unconscious and Automatic Nature of Stereotyping

• Stereotyping can be unconscious and automatic.

• Implicit Association Test: Measures hidden biases.

Attribution in Interpersonal Perception

• Attribution: Inferring causes of behavior based on dispositions vs. situations.

• Key Theories:

  • Dispositional Attributions: Internal characteristics affecting behavior.

  • Situational Attributions: External factors influencing actions.

• Covariation Model: Considers consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus in making attributions.

Attribution Errors

Fundamental Attribution Error

• Misattributing behavior primarily to personal disposition while ignoring situational context.

• Common causes:

  • Situational factors may not be obvious.

  • Dispositional explanations are cognitively simpler.

Actor–Observer Effect

• Distinction in attribution based on perspective:

  • Situational attributions for own behavior.

  • Dispositional attributions for others' similar behavior.

Understanding Others: Blindfold Studies

• Demonstrates how brief presentations of disability can lead to misunderstanding and overestimating empathy towards those experiences.

• Participants felt more compassionate yet misrepresented the complexity of living with disabilities.

Interpersonal Influence

• Social Influence: The ability to direct or change another's behavior.

• Motivations for Social Influence:

  • Hedonic Motive: Seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.

  • Approval Motive: Need for social acceptance and validation.

  • Accuracy Motive: Desire for correct beliefs and behaviors.

Hedonic Motive

• Pursuit of pleasurable experiences as a fundamental human motive.

• Influence through rewards and punishments is a common practice.

• Concepts:

  • Overjustification Effect: Reduction of intrinsic motivation due to external rewards.

  • Reactance: Resistance to perceived restrictions on personal freedom.

Approval Motive: Norms

• Acceptance is crucial for well-being and social cohesion.

• Norms: Socially accepted behaviors or reactions.

  • Norm of Reciprocity: Mutual exchange principle in social interactions.

  • Normative Influence: Influence based on the desire to conform.

  • Door-in-the-Face Technique: Starting with an unreasonable request to make a smaller request more palatable.

Approval Motive: Conformity

• Conformity: Adopting the behavior or views of others, especially in uncertain situations.

  • Asch’s conformity study exemplifies these behaviors through line judgement tasks.

  • Implications in real-world scenarios such as energy consumption behaviors.

Approval Motive: Obedience

• Obedience: Following orders from authority figures.

• Influenced by social norms and authority expectations.

• Milgram’s Obedience Study: Investigation of compliance and moral dilemmas under authoritative pressure.

Accuracy Motive: Attitudes and Beliefs

• Attitudes: Enduring evaluations that influence decision-making.

• Beliefs: Pieces of knowledge that impact actions.

• Motivated reliance on attitudes and beliefs to navigate social interactions and behaviors.

Accuracy Motive: Informational Influence

• Informational Influence: Change in beliefs or attitudes based on observation of others’ behaviors.

• Highlights the role of social context in shaping opinions.

Accuracy Motive: Persuasion

• Persuasion: The process through which one person's communication affects another's beliefs or attitudes.

• Elaboration Likelihood Model: Outlines two routes of persuasion:

  • Central-route Persuasion: Appeals to logic and strong arguments.

  • Peripheral-route Persuasion: Appeals to emotions and superficial cues.

How Persuasion Works

• Central-route: Effective when arguments are well-supported and logical.

• Peripheral-route: Effective when audiences lack motivation or ability to critically analyze content.

Consistency as a Motive

• Desire for consistency drives influences over behavior and attitudes.

• Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Gaining compliance through a small initial request.

• Cognitive Dissonance: Emotional discomfort arising from conflicting beliefs and behaviors, often leading to attitude adjustments.