Bio 1010 Macromolecules

Major Elements Found in Cells (Page 9)

• Key Elements in the Human Body

  • Oxygen (O): 65.0%

  • Carbon (C): 18.5%

  • Hydrogen (H): 9.5%

  • Nitrogen (N): 3.2%

  • Calcium (Ca): 1.5%

  • Phosphorus (P): 1.0%

  • Potassium (K): 0.4%

  • Sulfur (S): 0.3%

  • Sodium (Na): 0.2%

  • Chlorine (Cl): 0.2%

  • Magnesium (Mg): 0.1%

• Trace Elements: Include boron (B), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), fluorine (F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), silicon (Si), tin (Sn), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn).

Review on Elements (Page 10)

• Atoms and Their Components

  • Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus.

  • Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus.

  • Neutrons: Neutral particles in the nucleus.

• Importance: The number of protons, electrons, and neutrons determines the element and its isotopes.

Atomic Arrangement of Key Elements (Page 11)

• Most Abundant Elements in Living Matter: Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen.

• Electron Shells:

  • First shell: holds 2 electrons.

  • Second shell: holds 8 electrons.

  • Incomplete shells lead to interactions with other atoms.

Chemical Compounds (Page 12)

• Types of Bonds:

  • Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons; one atom becomes positive, the other negative.

  • Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons.

  • Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between slightly positive hydrogen and slightly negative atoms.

Key Notes About Bonds (Page 13)

• Covalent Bonds: Strongest due to sharing.

• Ionic Bonds: Strong but can be manipulated by solvents.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weaker, always involve hydrogen.

Importance of Bonding (Page 15)

• Dynamic Chemistry of Life: Cells constantly rearranging molecules by breaking and forming bonds.

Monomers and Polymers (Page 16)

• Monomer: Basic building block of macromolecules.

• Polymer: Long molecules made of linked monomers.

• Processes:

  • Dehydration Synthesis: Joins smaller molecules to form larger ones by taking out water.

  • Hydrolysis: Breaks apart larger molecules using water.

Conditions for Chemical Reactions (Page 19)

• Temperature: Higher temperatures increase molecular collisions.

• Concentration: More reactants lead to quicker reactions.

• Catalysts: Substances that increase reaction rates, primarily enzymes.

Enzymes (Page 20)

• Function: Speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Characteristics: Highly specialized, end in -ASE.

Denaturation of Proteins (Page 21)

• Importance of Shape: Shape is crucial for protein function; changes can lead to loss of function.

• Causes of Denaturation: Heat, pH changes, chemicals, salt concentration.

Inorganic Compounds (Page 22)

• Definition: Typically do not contain carbon.

• Examples: Water, salts, metals, carbon dioxide.

Cell Structure (Page 23)

• Composition: Mostly water and carbon-based molecules.

• Carbon-Based Life: Life on Earth is carbon-based; discussions on alternative life forms exist.

Organic Compounds (Page 24)

• Definition: Contain carbon and hydrogen.

• Significance: Essential for life; carbon can form complex molecules.

Hydrocarbons and Functional Groups (Page 25)

• Hydrocarbons: Composed of only carbon and hydrogen.

• Functional Groups: Attached to hydrocarbons, influencing reactivity.

Carbohydrates (Page 27)

• Types: Include sugars and starches.

• Examples: Table sugar, fruit sugar, starches like potatoes and pasta.

Monosaccharides (Page 28)

• Definition: Cannot be broken down into smaller sugars.

• Examples: Glucose, fructose, galactose.

Importance of Monosaccharides (Page 30)

• Energy Source: Glucose is primary for ATP production.

• Building Blocks: Serve as raw materials for amino acids and fatty acids.

Disaccharides (Page 32)

• Definition: Formed from two monosaccharides.

• Examples: Lactose (glucose + galactose), sucrose (glucose + fructose).

Polysaccharides (Page 33)

• Storage:

  • Plants: Starch (e.g., potatoes, corn).

  • Animals: Glycogen (stored in liver and muscles).

• Structural: Chitin in arthropods and fungi.

Carbohydrates and Water (Page 34)

• Hydrophilic Nature: Carbohydrates dissolve easily in water.

• Cellulose: Important for digestive health, not broken down by humans.

Lipids (Page 36)

• Definition: Hydrophobic molecules, including fats, oils, and steroids.

• Functions: Energy storage, cell membrane components, hormone production.

Types of Lipids (Page 37)

• Fats: Composed of glycerol and fatty acids (triglycerides).

• Saturated vs. Unsaturated: Saturated fats are solid at room temperature; unsaturated are liquid.

Trans Fats (Page 40)

• Definition: Unsaturated fats modified to remain solid.

• Health Risks: Linked to heart disease and other health issues.

Phospholipids (Page 43)

• Structure: Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.

• Function: Critical for cell membranes, forming bilayers.

Steroids (Page 46)

• Structure: Four fused rings.

• Examples: Cholesterol, sex hormones.

Proteins (Page 48)

• Monomer: Amino acids.

• Identification: Presence of nitrogen and varying R groups.

Veganism and Protein (Page 49)

• Challenges: Harder to obtain all essential amino acids without animal products.

• Sources: Quinoa, hemp seeds, tofu.

Free Radicals and Cancer Risk (Page 51)

• Brain Energy: High glucose demand.

• Antioxidants: Found in fruits and vegetables, combat free radicals.

Functions of Nucleic Acids (Page 66)

• Role: Direct protein synthesis, genetic information transfer.

• Types: DNA (genetic instructions) and RNA (protein assembly).

Summary of Macromolecules (Page 67)

• Carbohydrates: Primary energy source (e.g., pasta, fruits).

• Lipids: Long-term