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Week 2 - The Chemistry of Life
Page 1: Title and Copyright
Because learning changes everything.®Chapter 02: The Chemistry of LifeANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGYThe Unity of Form and FunctionTENTH EDITIONKENNETH S. SALADIN© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Page 2: Introduction to Biochemistry
Biochemistry: The study of the molecules that compose living organisms.
Includes carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Page 3: Learning Outcomes of Atoms, Ions, and Molecules
Expected Learning Outcomes:
Identify the elements of the body from their symbols.
Distinguish between elements and compounds.
State the functions of minerals in the body.
Explain the basis for radioactivity and the types and hazards of ionizing radiation.
Distinguish between ions, electrolytes, and free radicals.
Define the types of chemical bonds.
Page 4: The Chemical Elements
Chemical Element: Simplest form of matter with unique chemical properties.
Each element is identified by an atomic number (number of protons).
Periodic table arranges elements by atomic number.
91 naturally occurring elements; 24 play roles in humans.
Most abundant: oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P).
Some elements are minerals (inorganic) extracted from soil.
4% of body weight is minerals (mainly Ca and P).
Functions: Body structural roles, enzyme function, nerve/muscle cell functions.
Page 5: Atomic Structure
Atom: Smallest unit of matter.
Niels Bohr's planetary model (1913):
Nucleus: Center of atom, composed of protons (+) and neutrons (no charge).
Electrons: Surround the nucleus in energy levels, with a single negative charge.
Atoms are electrically neutral; number of electrons = number of protons.
Valence electrons determine chemical bonding properties.
Page 6: Bohr Planetary Model
Visual representation of atomic structure.
Page 7: Quantum Mechanical Model
More complex representation of atomic structure.
Page 8: Isotopes and Radioactivity
Isotopes: Varieties of an element that differ in neutron number.
Extra neutrons increase atomic weight.
Chemically similar due to same valence electrons.
Page 9: Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen (1H), Deuterium (2H), Tritium (3H).
Page 10: Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes that decay and emit radiation.
All elements have at least one.
Ionizing radiation can remove electrons, destroy molecules, and create free radicals.
Examples: UV radiation, X-rays.
Page 11: Ions, Electrolytes, and Free Radicals 1
Ion: Charged particle (unequal number of protons and electrons).
Ionization: Transfer of electrons.
Anion: Negatively charged ion (gained electrons).
Cation: Positively charged ion (lost electrons).
Opposite charges attract each other.
Page 12: Ionization Process
Visual representation of sodium and chlorine ionization.
Page 13: Sodium and Chloride Ions
Sodium ion (Na+) and Chloride ion (Cl-) formed by electron transfer.
Page 14: Ions, Electrolytes, and Free Radicals 2
Salts: Neutral compounds of cations and anions, dissociating in water.
Electrolytes: Substances that ionize in water and conduct electricity.
Functions: Chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, nerve/muscle excitability.
Electrolyte balance critical in patient care.
Page 15: Molecules and Chemical Bonds 1
Atoms combine to form molecules.
Molecule: Particle with two or more atoms united by chemical bonds.
Compound: Molecule of different elements.
Represented by molecular and structural formulas.
Page 16: Structural Isomers
Examples of ethanol and ethyl ether structural isomers.
Page 17: Molecules and Chemical Bonds 3
Chemical bonds hold atoms in a molecule.
Ionic bonds: Attraction between cations and anions.
Easily broken by water.
Covalent bonds: Atoms share electrons.
Can be single or double bonds, polar or nonpolar.
Page 18: Single Covalent Bond
Visual representation of a hydrogen molecule (H2).
Page 19: Double Covalent Bond
Visual representation of carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule.
Page 20: Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds
Visual illustrations of covalent bonding types.
Page 21: Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond: Weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom (e.g., oxygen or nitrogen).
Important in water molecules, DNA, and proteins.
Page 22: Hydrogen Bonding of Water
Representation of hydrogen bonds in water.
Page 23: Water and Mixtures Learning Outcomes
Expected Learning Outcomes:
Distinguish between mixtures and compounds.
Describe properties of water.
Define acid and base; interpret pH scale.
Page 24: Introduction to Mixtures
Body fluids are complex chemical mixtures.
Mixtures: Physically blended but not chemically combined.
Page 25: Water in Mixtures 1
Water constitutes 50-75% of body weight.
Its polar covalent bonds give it unique properties vital to supporting life.
Page 26: Water Properties 2
Solvency: Ability to dissolve substances.
Water: universal solvent; metabolic reactions depend on solvency.
Hydrophilic substances dissolve; Hydrophobic substances do not.
Page 27: Water and Hydration Spheres
Visual illustrating hydration spheres around ions.
Page 28: Water Properties 3
Adhesion: Tendency of substances to cling to each other.
Cohesion: Tendency of molecules to cling to themselves.
Surface tension due to cohesion.
Chemical reactivity: Water participates in chemical reactions.
Page 29: Water Properties 4
Thermal Stability: High heat capacity; stabilizes internal temperature.
Page 30: Solutions
Mixtures in water classified as solutions, colloids, and suspensions.
Solution: Particles (solute) mixed with water (solvent).
Page 31: Acids, Bases, and pH 1
Acid: Proton donor; releases H+ ions in water.
Base: Proton acceptor; binds H+ ions in water.
pH Scale: Measures acidity/basicity.
Normal blood pH: slightly basic.
Page 32: The pH Scale (Acids)
Acids range from 1 (strongest) to 7 (neutral).
Page 33: The pH Scale (Bases)
Bases range from 8 to 14 (strongest).
Page 34: Energy and Chemical Reactions Learning Outcomes
Expected Learning Outcomes:
Define energy and work.
Understand chemical equations.
Classify chemical reactions.
Identify reaction speed and direction influencers.
Define metabolism and oxidative processes.
Page 35: Energy and Work
Energy: Capacity to do work; types include potential and kinetic energy.
Chemical energy: Potential energy in molecular bonds.
Free energy: Energy available to do work.
Page 36: Classes of Chemical Reactions 1
Chemical Reaction: Bonds formed or broken.
Chemical Equation: Symbolizes reaction process; reactants yield products.
Page 37: Classes of Chemical Reactions 2
Types:
Decomposition: Large molecules break down into smaller ones.
Synthesis: Small molecules combine to form a larger one.
Page 38: Decomposition Reaction
Example showing starch decomposition into glucose.
Page 39: Synthesis Reaction
Example showing amino acids forming a protein molecule.
Page 40: Classes of Chemical Reactions 3
Reversible Reactions: Can proceed in either direction; symbolized with a double-headed arrow.
Page 41: Reaction Rates
Reactions occur with adequate force and orientation.
Reaction rates enhance with increased concentration, temperature, or presence of a catalyst.
Page 42: Metabolism, Oxidation, and Reduction 1
Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body; comprised of catabolism and anabolism.
Page 43: Metabolism, Oxidation, and Reduction 2
Oxidation: Loss of electrons; releases energy.
Reduction: Gain of electrons; accepts energy.
Redox reactions: oxidation of one molecule accompanied by reduction of another.
Page 44: Organic Compounds Learning Outcomes
Expected Learning Outcomes:
Explain carbon's role in biological molecules.
Discuss polymers, their formation and functions.
Page 45: Organic Compounds Learning Outcomes Continued
Discuss carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzyme functions, ATP structure, and nucleic acids.
Page 46: Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups 1
Organic Chemistry: Study of carbon-containing compounds; includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
Page 47: Carbon Compounds and Functional Groups 2
Carbon can form various structures due to its four valence electrons.
Forms long chains, branched molecules, and rings.
Page 48: Functional Groups of Organic Molecules 1
Examples of functional groups in organic molecules (hydroxyl, methyl, carboxyl).
Page 49: Functional Groups of Organic Molecules 2
Continuation of functional groups examples.
Page 50: Monomers and Polymers 1
Macromolecules: Large organic molecules; most are polymers formed from monomers.
Examples: starch (polymer of glucose), DNA.
Page 51: Monomers and Polymers 2
Polymerization: Joining of monomers via dehydration synthesis.
Hydrolysis: Breaking down polymers by adding water.
Page 52: Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis Reactions
Visual illustration of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis processes.
Page 53: Carbohydrates 1
Carbohydrates: Hydrophilic organic molecules; general formula based on carbon number.
Page 54: Carbohydrates 2
Monosaccharides: Simplest carbohydrates; glucose, galactose, and fructose.
They are isomers, sharing the same molecular formula.
Page 55: The Three Major Monosaccharides
Visual illustration of glucose, galactose, and fructose structures.
Page 56: Carbohydrates 3
Disaccharides: Composed of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds.
Important examples: sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), maltose (glucose + glucose).
Page 57: The Three Major Disaccharides (Sucrose)
Visual example showing the structure of sucrose.
Page 58: The Three Major Disaccharides (Lactose, Maltose)
Visual examples showing the structures of lactose and maltose.
Page 59: Carbohydrates 4
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides, key types include glycogen, starch, and cellulose.
Page 60: Glycogen
Visual illustration of glycogen structure.
Page 61: Carbohydrates 5
Functions of carbohydrates: Energy source, cell structure, and component of biomolecules.
Page 62: Lipids 1
Lipids: Hydrophobic organic molecules with a high hydrogen:oxygen ratio.
Types include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids.
Page 63: Lipids 2
Fatty acids: Chains of carbon atoms; essential fatty acids must be obtained from diet.
Saturated vs. Unsaturated: Differ by bond type between carbon atoms.
Page 64: Lipids 3
Triglycerides: Three fatty acids linked to glycerol; primary function is energy storage.
Types of dietary fats (solid or liquid at room temp.)
Page 65: Triglyceride (Fat) Synthesis 1
Visual representation of triglyceride synthesis from glycerol and fatty acids.
Page 66: Triglyceride (Fat) Synthesis 2
Continuation of visual representation showing product of triglyceride synthesis.
Page 67: Lipids 4
Phospholipids: Similar to triglycerides but with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group.
Phospholipids are amphipathic; crucial for cell membrane formation.
Page 68: Lecithin, a Representative Phospholipid
Visual representation of lecithin's structure.
Page 69: Lipids 5
Eicosanoids: Derived from arachidonic acid; functions include signaling in inflammation and blood clotting.
Page 70: Lipids 6
Steroids: Lipids with four carbon rings; cholesterol is a key molecule for steroid synthesis.
Page 71: Cholesterol
Visual representation of cholesterol structure.
Page 72: Proteins 1
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids with many biological functions.
Amino acids: Central carbon with amino and carboxyl groups; differ in their R-group.
Page 73: Amino Acids and Peptides 1
Visual representation of examples of amino acids.
Page 74: Proteins 2
Peptides: Two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds through dehydration synthesis.
Page 75: Amino Acids and Peptides 2
Visual representation of peptide bond formation.
Page 76: Protein Structure 1
Conformation: Complex three-dimensional shape of proteins; essential for function.
Denaturation: Extreme change in conformation that destroys function.
Page 77: Protein Structure 2
Levels of protein structure: Primary (amino acid sequence), Secondary (coiling/folding), Tertiary (further folding), Quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
Page 78: Protein Structure 3
Tertiary structure stability due to various interactions like disulfide bridges.
Page 79: Protein Structure 4
Visual representation illustrating different protein structure levels.
Page 80: Four Levels of Protein Structure 1
Visual representation showing primary, secondary, and tertiary structures.
Page 81: Four Levels of Protein Structure 2
Continuation of visual representation for protein structures.
Page 82: Protein Functions 1
Proteins serve diverse functions in structure (keratin, collagen), communication, and signaling.
Page 83: Protein Functions 2
Functions include membrane transport, catalysis, recognition, immunity, and movement.
Page 84: Protein Functions 3
Role in cell adhesion and structural integrity.
Page 85: Enzymes and Metabolism
Enzymes: Biological catalysts speeding up reactions by lowering activation energy.
Page 86: Effect of Enzyme on Activation Energy
Visual representation of activation energy and the effect of enzymes.
Page 87: Enzyme Structure and Action 1
Enzyme action involves substrate binding to the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
Page 88: The Three Steps of an Enzymatic Reaction
Visual illustration of the enzyme reaction process.
Page 89: Enzyme Structure and Action 2
Factors like temperature and pH can modify enzyme activity.
Page 90: Cofactors
Many enzymes require cofactors (inorganic or organic) to function.
Page 91: The Action of a Coenzyme
Visual representation of coenzyme action in metabolic pathways.
Page 92: ATP, Other Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides: Composed of a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate groups.
Example: ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Page 93: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Visual representation of ATP structure.
Page 94: ATP Functions
ATP: Key energy-transfer molecule; stores energy gained from exergonic reactions.
Page 95: ATP Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis of ATP produces ADP and releases energy for physiological work.
Page 96: Source and Uses of ATP
Glucose oxidation provides energy used for ATP production and various cellular functions.
Page 97: ATP Production
ATP is produced through glycolysis, anaerobic fermentation, and aerobic respiration.
Page 98: Visual Representations of ATP Production
Detailed visuals for glycolysis, anaerobic, and aerobic ATP production processes.
Page 99: Other Nucleotides
GTP and cAMP as examples of other nucleotide roles in energy transfer.
Page 100: Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)
Visual representation of cAMP structure.
Page 101: Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides; crucial for genetic information and protein synthesis.
Page 102: Conclusion
Because learning changes everything.® www.mheducation.com© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without consent.
Page 103: Accessibility Content
Information about accessible content alternatives for images in the textbook.
Page 104: Models of Atomic Structure—Bohr Planetary Model
Details about atomic structures of carbon and sodium atoms in the Bohr model.
Page 105: Models of Atomic Structure—Quantum Mechanical Model
More realistic atomic structure representation, contrasting with Bohr's model.
Page 106: Isotopes of Hydrogen
Details about the structures of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium isotopes.
Page 107: Ionization Process 1
Explanation of electron transfer during ionization.
Page 108: Ionization Process 2
Summary of resulting sodium and chloride ions from ionization.
Page 109: Structural Isomers
Comparison of structural formulas for ethanol and ethyl ether.
Page 110: Single Covalent Bond
Overview of hydrogen molecule formation via covalent bonding.
Page 111: Double Covalent Bond
Details about carbon dioxide molecule formation from carbon and oxygen atoms.
Page 112: Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds
Illustrations comparing nonpolar and polar covalent bonds.
Page 113: Hydrogen Bonding of Water
Explanation of hydrogen bonding in water molecules.
Page 114: Water and Hydration Spheres
Descriptions of hydration spheres around ions in water.
Page 115: Solution, Colloid, and Suspension
Comparisons between solutions, colloids, and suspensions using visual aids.
Page 116: The pH Scale (Acids)
Overview of the pH scale measuring acidity.
Page 117: The pH Scale (Bases)
Overview of the pH scale measuring basicity.
Page 118: Decomposition Reaction
Visual overview of starch decomposition into glucose.
Page 119: Synthesis Reaction
Visual representation of amino acids synthesis into proteins.
Page 120: Exchange Reaction
Overview of an exchange reaction producing new products.
Page 121: Functional Groups of Organic Molecules 1
Table comparing different functional groups of organic molecules and their occurrences.
Page 122: Functional Groups of Organic Molecules 2
Continuation of the table detailing more functional groups.
Page 123: Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis Reactions
Visuals showing dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.
Page 124: The Three Major Monosaccharides
Description of glucose, galactose, and fructose as examples of monosaccharides.
Page 125: The Three Major Disaccharides (Sucrose)
Insights into the structure of sucrose as a disaccharide.
Page 126: The Three Major Disaccharides (Lactose, Maltose)
Summary about structures of lactose and maltose.
Page 127: Glycogen
Visual illustrating glycogen polysaccharide structure.
Page 128: Triglyceride (Fat) Synthesis 1
Representation of fatty acid interactions in triglyceride formation.
Page 129: Triglyceride (Fat) Synthesis 2
Overview of product formation in triglyceride synthesis.
Page 130: Trans- and Cis- Fatty Acids
Structural differences between trans and cis fatty acids.
Page 131: Lecithin, a Representative Phospholipid
Detailed representation of lecithin structure.
Page 132: Cholesterol
Insights into the structure and function of cholesterol.
Page 133: Amino Acids and Peptides 1
Introduction of structural representations for several amino acids.
Page 134: Amino Acids and Peptides 2
Explanation of peptide bond formation leading to dipeptides.
Page 135: Four Levels of Protein Structure 1
Introduction to primary and secondary protein structures.
Page 136: Four Levels of Protein Structure 2
Overview of tertiary and quaternary structures with visuals.
Page 137: Effect of an Enzyme on Activation Energy
Visuals illustrating activation energy variations with and without catalysts.
Page 138: The Three Steps of an Enzymatic Reaction
Descriptive guide through the enzymatic reaction process.
Page 139: The Action of a Coenzyme
Overview of metabolic processes involving coenzymes in glycolysis and respiration.
Page 140: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Detailed structural insights of ATP.
Page 141: The Source and Uses of ATP
Depiction of ATP energy transfer mechanism and its uses in physiological functions.
Page 142: ATP Production
Comprehensive overview of ATP production through glycolysis and respiration.
Page 143: Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)
Overview of the structure and function of cAMP.
NoteStudied by 12 peopleNoteStudied by 34 peopleNoteStudied by 8631 peopleNoteStudied by 14 peopleNoteStudied by 9 peopleNoteStudied by 9 people