7.9 Understanding Memory Encoding

Encoding Process of Memory

  • Definition: Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory and later retrieved.

  • Primary Focus: The focus is on how to effectively encode information into long-term memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

  • Explanation:

    • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information over and over again in an attempt to memorize it.

    • This approach is often ineffective and leads to what is known as rote learning.

Ineffectiveness of Maintenance Rehearsal

  • Experiments:

    • Participants were asked to remember a sequence of four numbers (e.g., 3, 8, 6, 4).

    • To disrupt the process, participants repeated a random word (e.g., "tank") for varying durations (2 to 18 seconds).

    • They would then be asked to recall the original numbers after disruption.

    • Findings showed that there was no significant difference in recall performance based on the duration of the word repetition (2 seconds vs 18 seconds).

    • This indicates that duration of repetition does not significantly affect memory retention.

Depth of Processing

  • Shallow Processing:

    • Defined as focusing on superficial qualities, such as sounds or appearances of words.

    • Example prompts:

    • Is the word in capital letters?

    • Does it rhyme with another word?

  • Deep Processing:

    • Involves focusing on the meaning of the information being learned.

    • Deep processing enhances memorability.

    • Example prompt:

    • Does the word fit in the context of a sentence, like "The girl placed the _ on the table"?

    • Here, the respondent must consider the meaning of “basket.”

Elaborative Rehearsal

  • Definition:

    • A strategy that involves connecting new information with pre-existing knowledge.

    • By integrating new pieces of information with existing memories, one creates additional pathways for retrieval.

    • Analogy: Think of your memory as a maze where deep processing lays down breadcrumbs to navigate through memories effectively.

Experiments on Depth of Processing

  • Word Recall Studies:

    • When comparing recall between shallow and deep processing conditions:

    • Words encoded using deep processing were remembered more frequently than those encoded through shallow processing.

Types of Learning

  • Intentional Learning:

    • Occurs when individuals are aware they need to learn and memorize.

  • Incidental Learning:

    • Takes place as a byproduct of engaging in effective learning practices without intention to memorize.

    • Example instructional conditions:

    • Explicit instructions: Learners know they will be tested.

    • Implicit instructions: No expectations of memory testing.

    • Best memory performance was recorded in implicit deep processing conditions where learners considered aspects like the pleasantness of the word instead of its superficial qualities.

Self-reference and Survival Processing

  • Self-reference Effect:

    • Involves relating information to oneself, enhancing recall.

  • Survival Processing:

    • Refers to remembering information that relates to one's survival and well-being.

    • Emphasizes that information with personal significance tends to be more memorable due to evolutionary factors.

Emotions and Memories

  • Enhancement of Memory through Emotions:

    • Intense emotions often enhance the memory process due to deep processing involved.

  • Flashbulb Memories:

    • Strong emotional reactions can lead to vivid and enduring memories of specific events.

    • Example: Many individuals have vivid flashbulb memories of significant events, such as the September 11 attacks.

Memory Decay

  • Subjective Sense of Accuracy:

    • Although flashbulb memories feel precise, research indicates that their details also decay and lose accuracy over time, similar to standard memories.

Stress and Memory

  • Acute Stress vs. Chronic Stress:

    • Acute stress (short-term) can enhance memory consolidation through the release of stress hormones like cortisol and norepinephrine.

    • Chronic stress can impair cognitive functions and inhibit learning by causing a decay of connections, which is contrary to effective memory formation.

Conclusion

  • Best Practices for Effective Encoding:

    • Engage in deep processing strategies such as elaborative rehearsal.

    • Personalize information to increase relevance and memorability.

    • Recognize the effects of emotional intensity and the role of stress in memory retention.

    • Understand the distinction between intentional and incidental learning, employing techniques that leverage both for better outcomes in memory encoding.