PiG - 1. ispit (Political Action, Political regimes, State)
POLITICS - BASIC TERMINOLOGY
politics - set of activities working for public interest
art or skill of governing a community aimed at achieving common good
the study of politics is called political science or politology
politics is multidimensional → political triad
1) politics - procedural dimension (processes)
how the decisions are made
2) polity - institutional dimension
who makes the decisions
3) policy - content or material dimension
what the decisions are about
public policy - content of political decision making
concerns all aspects of life, everybody feels the consequences
represents interventions by the state directed at achieving common good
in democracy → uses authority which comes from legitimacy after winning the elections
Types of Political Policies
1) general policy → according to territory
local, regional, national, global
2) specific policies → according to topics
health, foreign, tourism, tax, economic, agricultural, financial, educational, or military policy
Overview of Political Thought in Philosophy
Plato → Politeia (philosophers as rulers)
Aristotle → Politics (man is a zoon politikon)
Cicero → De re publica (res republica = common good)
A. Augustine → City of God (Heavenly city (Lord’s) vs. Earthly (Devil’s) city)
T. Aquinas → Summa theologiae (correct policies follow God’s commandments, common good)
N. Machiavelli → The Prince (end justifies the means)
POLITICAL ACTORS
everyone who is politically active
1) politicians
goal: to seize political power
in democracies → voters give them their trust and expect professional behavior in return
2) citizens
goal: to impact the political power
civil society → citizens enroll in organizations
NGO (non-government organizations), unions, religious communities, interest groups, social movements etc.
activities → petitions, volunteering, boycotts, protests, voting, plebiscite, strikes, ethical buying, civil disobedience, citizen initiatives, involvement of media, town meetings
citizens try to be part of the problem solving for the community in order to achieve a better quality of life
big corporations → actors who try to impact the political power
lobbying (influencing the decisions of a government)
citizen → individual in a state
1) active citizen - a citizen who participates in the public sphere defending one’s specifics
implies differences
they express their own interests
EU citizens have the right to live and move freely within the EU borders, as well as the right to address the European ombudsman (pučki pravobranitelj)
2) citizen as a member of the nation-state
implies equality
equal political rights regardless of specific characteristics (age, sex, creed, race, financial status etc.)
aware of their belonging to a nation
Acquirement of Croatian Citizenship
birth on Croatian territory
origin (by parents)
naturalization (long-time residence, marriage, adoption etc.)
special cases
→ dual citizenship is allowed :)
→ main document of Croatian citizenship is called domovnica
PEOPLE, NATION AND SOVEREIGNTY
people
community of people who live on the same territory, use the same language, and nourish the same customs → etnos (ethnos)
not all people have their own country (Kurds, Roma people, Catalans, Flemish etc.)
nation
politically sovereign people, usually within a country
people become a nation when they form their own country
national identity is achieved by national symbols (anthem, flag, historic events, national holidays etc.)
→ Croatian people developed their country in 1990.
→ first constitution was adopted on December 22 1990 (božićni ustav)
sovereignty
supreme and independent power or authority in a state
unrestricted on specific territory, within internationally recognized borders (land, sea, and air)
inalienable (neotuđiv), indivisible (nedjeljiv), and non-transferable (neprenosiv)
national minorities → smaller ethnic groups who are part of a nation
modern democratic countries protect their rights and guarantee equality (unity in diversity)
crimes against minorities: discriminations, deportation, ethnic cleansing, genocide
Treatment of Minorities
1) assimilation - minority abandons their customs and adopts customs of the majority
2) melting pot → mixing of different cultures and creation of a new cultural group
USA - spontaneous and voluntary, USSR and Yugoslavia - planned and forceful)
3) cultural pluralism → coexistence of different ethnic groups regardless of their number
Switzerland
minorities in Croatia: Serbs, Italians, Albanians, Roma people, Slovenians, Hungarians, Czechs
POLITICAL ACTION
every political action is based on freedom, political culture and upholding human dignity
political culture is needed → requires education, access to information and the will to participate
Types of Political Culture
1) parochial
no awareness of nationality or central government, people are focused on their parish (župa) or small community
2) subject
vague awareness of belonging to a larger community (nation), but people remain passive because they don’t think they have any impact on the government
3) participant
high awareness of nationality and community, notion of citizen significance
life in political community is formed by political action
abstinence → giving up on political action
Types of Political Action
1) physical political action
signing petitions, party organizing, civil disobedience, peaceful protests, ethical buying, strikes, voting, taking part in referendums
2) political writings
books, essays, articles, leaflets, brochures, billboards with slogans
more common during an election campaign
3) political communication
communication between all political actors, media, and the public
includes speeches and debates
visible in public speeches, manipulation, and censorship
political speech
purpose: form opinions, impact views of political actors and affect their behavior
Types of Political Speeches Considering the Target Audience
exclusive - professional speeches among politicians
totalitarian - discriminates those who don’t think alike
democratic - dialogs, tolerance, respects different opinions
Types of Political Speeches Considering the Speaker’s Skills
emotional - keywords (family, motherhood, blood, sweat, tears etc.)
expressive - vast vocabulary, poetic figures of speech
extensive - avoiding weak points, manipulation
iterative - repetition of important key phrases
coherent - precise and concise, no additional strategies
free media is important for a democracy
censorship is prohibition of publishing of certain content, mostly present in totalitarian regimes
more freedom = less censorship
spin is a kind of political marketing with a purpose of drawing attention
intention: criticize the opponent, buy time or make a selection of facts that fit the political figures
propaganda is a planned spreading of ideas through media
systematically impacts points of view of the audience
POWER, AUTHORITY AND RULE OF LAW
power according to Max Weber is the chance that an individual in a social relationship can achieve through their own will, even against the resistance of others
authority
legitimate power that one person or a group possesses and practices over another
power can be exerted by the use of force or violence
authority depends on the acceptance by subordinates and of the right of those above them to give them orders
the acceptance lies on traditional beliefs and winning the election
legitimacy is not the same as legality → being in conformity with the law
Types of Authority According to M. Weber
1) traditional - power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural patterns
“It’s always been that way.”
2) charismatic - power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and obedience
needs to be proved on an everyday basis
3) rational-legal - power legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations
someone’s ability plays an important role, not their suitability
rule of law
legal and political concept which requires all parts of society (especially politicians!) to act according to law
laws represent reason and stability
Charles Montesquieu → obedience to the law should be the supreme principle
in order for power not to be concentrated in the hands of an individual → separation of powers
separation of powers disables misuse (all three parts are independent)
independent within their powers, but they control each other and cooperate
Branches of Government
1) legislative - parliaments
writes constitutions, makes laws, represents the people
one or a two-house system
2) executive - government and presidents
enforces laws, has responsibility for the governance of a state
3) judicial - hierarchy of courts
ensures uniform application of laws and equality of citizens
court of first instance (prvostupanjski), appeal court (prizivni), and supreme court (Vrhovni)
Models of Democracy
1) parliament democracy
strives to achieve the balance between legislative and executive power
laws are proposed by the government and the parliament passes them
representatives are elected directly to the parliament
the government must have the support from the parliament majority
the parliament supervises the work of the government and elects the president
Croatia has had this system since the 2000 with the exception of the direct presidential election
2) presidential democracy (e.g. USA)
the president is elected directly, as well as the members of Congress
Congress passes the laws, but the president has the power of veto (temporarily)
technically there is no government → the president appoints the co-called president’s men
3) semi-presidential democracy
a directly elected president appoints the government members
the government must be approved by the parliament
the government answers to both the president and the parliament
executive branch more powerful than the legislative
e.g. Republic of France
Croatia had this system until the end of 2000
laws and the Constitution are written rules in modern societies
Constitution
highest legal act of any country, defines its political system
all other legal acts are formed based on the Constitution
it shouldn’t be changed often!
lists basic civil rights, the institutions, and the cooperation with other countries
Ustav RH: Izvorišne osnove, Temeljne odredbe, Zaštita ljudskih prava i temeljnih sloboda, Ustrojstvo državne vlasti, Ustavni sud RH, Mjesna, lokalna i područna (regionalna) samouprava, Međunarodni odnosi, Europska unija
laws
regulate social life, must be in harmony with the constitution and moral values
apply equally to all citizens, nobody is above the law
procedure of passing laws must be public, transparent, and according to rules (urgent passing only in justifies circumstances)
quorum → a minimum number of representatives in the parliament necessary to pass a law (above 50% of representatives)
most laws are passed with the overwhelming majority of present representatives
for particularly sensitive laws a large majority is needed (⅔) of all representatives, not just the present ones
consensus → unanimous passing of a law
citizens are required to know and obey the laws (duties, obligations, prohibitions, and penalties)
legal state → a state in which the authorities must stick to legal principles, rules and procedures
police state → opposite of a legal state; a state in which there is no certainty of the law and citizens can be subjugated to various treatments, otherwise illegal
MORAL, LEGAL AND POLITICAL RESPONSIBILITY
→ in order to choose the best politicians, we need to look for those of who have similar system values to ours
we need to demand responsible performance and have them obey the laws and integrity
politicians should be professional, consistent and tolerant
it is our duty to supervise their performance
Politicians’ Responsibilities
legal
responsibility when breaking the law or the constitution (nobody is above the law)
the Croatian parliament supervises the government, the Constitutional court supervises the president, the State judicial council supervises the judicial branch etc.
political
responsibility for mistakes when making decisions
the media and the public reconsider the conduct of politicians
public condemnation, distrust, retaliation at the next elections etc.
moral
respecting the moral norms of the society
lies, adultery, hypocrisy etc.
corruption (lat. corruptio)
it signals a dishonest behavior, working towards their own interests at the costs of others
misuse of power, bribery, hiring without competition, embezzlement, nepotism, clientelism, conflict of interest
fighting corruption: disclosure, publication, harsh punishment, anti-corruption education
ought to be led by prevention authorities → their goal must be disabling corruption, education about the harmful effects of corruption and encouragement of positive social values, such as honesty and integrity
USKOK (2002) = Ured za suzbijanje korupcije i organiziranog kriminala
TIH = Transparency International Hrvatska
non-profit organization dedicated to increasing the responsibility and fighting corruption on a national scale
it does NOT investigate specific cases of corruption (that’s what the branches of government do), but rather educate and impact change of the system
not enough to change the laws and expect people to be honest
POLITICAL SYSTEMS
seven basic types of political systems (forms of government by power source): democracy, republic, monarchy, aristocracy, tyranny, dictatorship and totalitarianism
monarchy and republic are forms of states by system of ruling
democracy (gr. demos - people + kratein - rule)
“rule of the people” → presents the rule of majority, along with the protection of minorities (liberal democracy)
based on pluralism
political goals achieved through the competition of many political subjects
separation of powers
fundamental values: equality, freedom and human dignity
direct democracy
government in which the people represent themselves and vote directly for new laws and public policy
today only visible in form of a referendum
Croatia has held three referendums so far: for independence, accession to the EU and constitutional definition of marriage
representative democracy
people or citizens of a country elect representatives to create and implement public policy in place of an active participation by the people, for a defined duration (mandate)
authoritarianism
government has little popular support, but it does NOT control all aspects of life (often economic, religious, cultural, family issues are left to individual decision-making)
absolute obedience is expected of citizens, disobedience is met with force
leaves the appearance of pluralism because political parties (which are not dangerous to the government) are allowed
does not propagate an ideology, only obedience is required
political apathy is present among citizens
personal rule - the ruler is a leader who enjoys unlimited power, often corrupted
e.g. Singapore → soft authoritarianism (high standards, otherwise a republic)
e.g. UAE → hard authoritarianism (no universal suffrage, otherwise a monarchy)
totalitarianism
government has complete control over all segments of life
only one political party with a totalitarian ideology (fascism, communism, national socialism) and its members occupy the most important positions in society
e.g Stalin in the USSR, Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy
phenomenon of the 20th century → mass media used as a tool to impact the subjects
isolates the individual, civil society disappears
e.g. North Korea today
characteristics: one ideology, one party, secret police, military force, media monopoly (propaganda), centralized economy
Forms of States by System of Ruling
lat. res republica → country is considered a “public matter”, not the private concern of property of the rulers
meaning the common good
the primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but attained through elections → expressing the consent of the governed
such leaderships are therefore expected to fairly represent the citizen body
according to the relationship between the executive and legislative powers a republic can be
presidential → executive power independent from the legislative power
semi-presidential → part of the executive power responsible to the parliament
parliamentary → executive power responsible to the parliament
according to the holder of sovereignty a republic can be
democratic → the bearer of sovereignty is the entire nation
aristocratic → the bearer of sovereignty is part of the population (e.g. Republic of Dubrovnik)
the Republic of Croatia is a parliamentary and democratic republic!!
monarchy
form of government in which a group, usually a family representing a dynasty, embodies the country’s national identity at its head
monarch exercises the role of sovereignty
power of a monarch may vary from purely symbolic (parliamentary republic) to completely autocratic (absolute monarchy)
traditionally the monarch’s post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication
in contrast, elective monarchies require the monarchs to be elected (e.g. Vatican City & UAE)
usurpation → non-legitimate monarchy, a ruler claims the rule without legal rights
monarchies in EU: Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Spain, Sweden, Denmark
other European monarchies: the UK, Norway, Monaco, Andorra, Lichtenstein, Vatican City
STATE
provides nations with territory they live in, the government that governs and organizes the entire society and gives citizens a sense of security
first form of a state that regulates relations between people → France, 17th century (absolute monarchy)
in absolute states residents are controlled
in liberal states efforts are made to protect the residents’ rights
achieved through the separation of powers (control of one government over another), legislation protects residents and predetermined rules create a rule of law
modern states are nation-states → sense of a national belonging and the idea of citizenship is developed
ways of state formation: accession, annexation, unification, separation, disintegration, division
constitutive elements of a state:
population → citizens who have rights and duties
territory → legally determined, sovereignty within the territory
organized government → manages and organizes the functioning of a state
also desirable to have international recognition (confirmation from other countries) and a constitution (every country has some form of a fundamental legal document)
Forms of Government by Regional Control
1) unitary state
state governed as a single power in which the central government is ultimately supreme and any administrative divisions (subnational units) exercise only the power that the central government chooses to delegate
Croatia is a unitary state with territorial division called županije
majority of states have a unitary system of government
there can be divisions into regions, provinces, districts and municipalities that have some autonomy
e.g. France, Italy, Sweden, Slovenia, Japan, China, etc.
2) federation (aka a federal state)
political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions under a central (federal) government
the federation is superior to its units
the fundamental legal document is the federal Constitution
e.g. the USA, Federal Republic of Germany, Federation of BiH, Austria, Brazil. Russian Federation, Canada, Switzerland, Belgium
HUMAN RIGHTS
human rights are endangered in both developed and developing countries
phenomena that endanger people: health care, poverty, discrimination, pollution, no rule of law, wars, etc.
human rights are basic rights of every born person
deserved rights simply because we exist as human beings
they are NOT granted by the state
division based on different areas of human existence
first generation - civil and political rights
civil rights protect an individual from arbitrary actions of a state
e.g. the right to life, liberty, security, equality before the law
they guarantee political rights (the right to participate in political life)
the right to freedom of opinion and freedom of the press
second generation - economic, social and cultural rights
every human needs to be provided with the most basic things to survive
right to work, compensation for work, social security, rest and leisure, right to education and participation in cultural life
third generation - concerning the problems of modern society
developed in recent times by the emergence of new challenges in societies around the world
right to peace, healthy environment, humanitarian aid, protection of personal data, communication, rights of the unborn and other living beings