Portuguese Expansion: Vasco da Gama (1497-1499) reached India, controlling Indian Ocean trade, Sugar plantations in West African islands (Azores, Cape Verde) → Model for future colonial economies, Brazil: Shift from trade empire to territorial colonization.
The Atlantic World: Columbus (1492): Motivated by economic and religious goals, Encomienda System: Forced labor in Spanish colonies, Father Montesinos (1511): Criticized Spanish brutality against Indigenous peoples.
The Conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires: Aztec Empire (1300s-1500s): Monarchy, tribute system, Tenochtitlán (25 million people), Cortés (1519-1521): Used internal conflicts, superior weapons, disease (smallpox) to conquer the Aztecs, Inca Empire (Cuzco, 4-6 million people) → Conquered by Pizarro (1532-1533).
The Columbian Exchange: Corn, potatoes → Population boom in Europe, Asia, Africa, Diseases → 85% decline in Native American populations, Horses, cattle → Changed Indigenous lifestyles.
The Spanish Empire: Tribute payments (cash vs. goods/labor under Aztecs & Incas), Silver mining (Potosí, Zacatecas) fueled Spanish wealth, Mestizaje (Doña Marina) → Racial mixing and social hierarchy.
The Atlantic Slave Trade: 12 million Africans taken; 10 million survived the journey, Comparison to Islamic Slave Trade → No permanent servitude in Islamic societies, Sugar plantations in Brazil & Caribbean → High mortality rates.
Mercantilism: Colonies exist to enrich the mother country, Monopolies (no competition allowed), Government & merchants work together (ex: British Navigation Acts).
Asia in the 17th-18th Centuries: Ming China: Silver-based economy → Inflation, economic instability, Qing Dynasty (1644) replaced Ming, Mughals in India: Prosperity, but regional fragmentation.
Thirty Years’ War: Protestant vs. Catholic struggle → Led to standing armies, economic shifts.
Absolutism in France: Louis XIV, "Divine Right of Kings".
Absolutism in England: Glorious Revolution (1688) → Parliamentary monarchy.
Seven Years’ War: Britain vs. France over trade & land → Britain became dominant global power.
The Mughal Empire: Akbar (1556-1605): Religious tolerance, "Divine Faith”, Shah Jahan (1630s): Built Taj Mahal, Later Mughal rulers → Less religious tolerance, decline of empire.
Latin American Revolutions: Creoles led independence movements, Mexico: 1810-1821 → Violent struggle, Brazil (1822): Peaceful independence → Became a constitutional monarchy.
Treatise on Tolerance: written by voltaire, weird language, on separation of church & state, book
Jahangir’s Memoirs: asking for religious tolerance, mughal empire
Mexica Views of the Spaniards: compiled accounts on Spanish conquest of Mexica elites
Approaching Tenochtitlan: Cortes letter to the Emperor detailing the granduer of the city
Olaudah Equiano: book written on the personal story of the slave trade
Mary Wollstonecraft: book on women’s rights
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