Conservatism Lecture Notes

Conservatism

Values: Society, politics, culture, policy, tradition, belief.

What is Conservatism?

• Focuses on tradition, the importance of institutions, and gradual change.

History of Conservatism

• Emerged in the late 18th century as a reaction to the French Revolution (1789).
• European aristocrats and landowners sought to preserve the status quo.
• Emphasized tradition, hierarchy, and stability.
• 19th century: political parties like the Tories in Britain and the Conservatives in North America advocated for a limited role of government, free markets, and a strong sense of national identity.
• 20th century: Different branches emerged, including classical liberalism, neoconservatism, and libertarianism, each with unique views on economics, foreign policy, and social values.

Key Thinkers

Thomas Hobbes

• Key Text: ‘Leviathan’ (1690)
• Wrote in response to the English Civil War.
• Cynical view of human nature; did not support the idea of natural rights.
• Stressed the importance of order, as humans without it will turn on each other, driven by self-interest.

Edmund Burke

• Often seen as the ‘father of conservatism’.
• Key Text: ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ (1790)
• Supported the American Revolution but was critical of the French Revolution.
• Rejected the anarchy it caused; preferred ‘change to conserve’.
• Preferred experience over ideology.
• Focused on community rather than self-interest; ‘little platoons’.

Ayn Rand

• Influential in ‘New Right’ thinking.
• Key Text: ‘The Virtue of Selfishness’ (1964)
• Believed in objectivism.
• Did not see society as important; took an atomistic view.
• The state’s role should be limited to essentials of defense and law & order.
• Argued that a bigger state worsens human self-interest and creates a dependency culture.

Robert Nozick

• Key Text: ‘Anarchy, State & Utopia’ (1974)
• New Right Thinker
• Saw the individual as key – the main vehicle for any success.
• Believed in a minarchist state – small government, limited involvement, laissez-faire economics.
• Rejected the redistribution of wealth; ‘tax is theft’ and the individual should keep the fruits of their productivity.

Michael Oakeshott

• Key Text: ‘On Being Conservative’ (1962)
• Emphasized the importance of tradition rather than ideology, like Burke.
• Saw the state’s main responsibility as conserving order, shown by his ‘nautical metaphor’.
• Took an optimistic view of human nature but still saw humans as imperfect.
• Focused on pragmatism as conservatism was the philosophy of imperfection.

Core Tenets

Human Nature

• ‘Flawed & Imperfect’

  • Many Conservative thinkers reject the optimistic and malleable view of human nature.
  • They do not believe human nature can be corrected by changing society or through ideology.
  • Human nature has been constant throughout history and is limited.
  • This supports Oakeshott’s view that conservatism is the philosophy of imperfection.

• ‘Cynical’

  • Hobbes viewed human nature as egotistical and ruthless in its pursuit of self-interest.
  • Hobbes also argued that without order human nature would resort to conflict driven by envy and self-interest. He remarked that life is “nasty, brutish and short”.
  • However, human beings are aware of this being an obstacle for them and would create a state that promoted order.

• ‘Sceptical’

  • Burke wrote at the time of the French Revolution and did not express the joy that many others felt at the time.
  • He saw the violence and upheaval that it caused as due to the limits of human achievement.
  • He described a ‘chasm’ between human ambition and achievement which could be seen in the French Revolution.
  • As human beings often fall short, any major change should be slow and gradual, as that offers chances to revise along the way.

• ‘Forgiving’

  • Oakeshott believed that whilst human beings often fail, they are still capable of kindness and generosity.
  • He described them as both “fallible not terrible” and “imperfect not immoral”.
  • He also rejected the notion of life being ‘nasty and brutish’, he said human beings are creatures of habit who enjoy “families, friends, gardens and games”.

• ‘Objectivist & Egotistical’

  • New Right thinkers take an objectivist view of human nature. This strongly advocates that human beings are driven by rational selfishness and that the proper moral purpose of one’s life is the pursuit of their own happiness.
  • Rand stated “I recognize no obligation towards men except one; to respect their freedom”.
  • Nozick argued that humans being egotistic would not cause conflict but lead to more enterprise and success in a capitalist society, he called it “our restless quest for self-betterment”.

Society

• ‘Rejection of Natural Society’

  • Many conservative thinkers reject the idea of ‘natural society’.
  • Both Hobbes and Burke thought that a society was only possible if it also had law & order.
  • If law & order collapses in society individual rights would disappear.
  • Hobbes and Burke were informed by the times that they were writing it, the English Civil War and the French Revolution, respectively.

• ‘Little Platoons’

  • Many conservatives did not see society as one single thing or entity but as being made up of several smaller communities such as churches, clubs, teams and families.
  • Burke referred to these as ‘little platoons’ and that they were important for managing the imperfections of human nature. He said these ‘little platoons’ trimmed and pruned the “crooked timber of humanity”.
  • Oakeshott argued that these communities give a sense of purpose, limit people’s egotism and offer protection from the state.
  • Conservative PM, David Cameron, called for a ‘big society and a small state’.

• ‘Organic’

  • Conservative thinkers such as Burke and Oakeshott believe that society cannot be created, it can only emerge naturally. This links to their rejection of ideology guiding people’s thinking.
  • Society can be compared to a tree; it takes time to grow and that what it will eventually look like cannot be foreseen. However, it still requires law and order to help it grow fully.

• ‘Importance of Tradition’

  • Most conservatives think that a good society is one that values tradition.
  • Burke described the best way for society to function is when it’s a “partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born”.
  • This emphasis on tradition means that society should be guided by experience “that which is known” and not by new radical ideology.
  • Both Burke and Oakeshott thought that Christian teaching were also a good basis for a society and rejected atheism.

• ‘Paternalistic Inequality’

  • Conservative thinkers defend inequality as unequal wealth is natural and desirable.
  • However, it is the duty of those in power to look after the poor and the weak.
  • This links to the idea of paternalism with the upper classes in power being seen as the father of a family.
  • Burke supported this idea as he thought that if those in power neglected this responsibility it would lead to tensions which could cause a revolution, like the one in France.

• ‘Importance of Private Property’

  • The ability to inherit private property is a key part of Burke’s partnership between the living and the dead.
  • The ownership of private property is the basis of paternalism as those who own private property formed the basis of the upper classes.
  • It also links to Burke’s notion that those in power have an obligation to look after the poor as this will prevent revolution, thus protecting their property.

• ‘Atomism’

  • New Right thinkers such as Rand and Nozick view society as a collection of individuals. Rand described it as a “kaleidoscope of autonomous individuals”.
  • This also became linked to Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher, who became linked to the idea of ‘no such thing as society’.
  • These thinkers reject the idea of paternalism as they view it as patronizing and leading to a ‘dependency culture’.
  • Instead, they believe an ‘enterprise culture’ should be created which is meritocratic rather than aristocratic, in which individuals create their own successes.

Economy

• ‘Aware of the dangers of Capitalism’

  • Traditional conservatives support capitalism but acknowledge that ‘laissez-faire’ economics does have the potential to damage society and cause inequality.
  • This links to the cynical and sceptical view of human nature.
  • Oakeshott warned against the “restless rhythms” of the economy; he saw uncontrolled capitalism as a threat to traditional industries and the charms of rural countryside. This can be seen in some Conservative MPs’ criticism of the building of HS2.

• ‘Moderated Capitalism’

  • Traditional conservatives support a moderated form of capitalism through government regulation.
  • Hobbes argued that a strong state provides stability, which allows the economy to flourish.
  • This can be seen with Conservative PM Harold MacMillan who proposed a ‘middle way’ which would protect capitalism whilst also committing to public spending on things like the NHS.
  • This can also be seen with ‘protectionism’ which is putting restrictions on international trade to protect domestic industries.

• ‘Free Market Economics & Thatcherism’

  • New Right or Neo-Liberal thinkers support a completely free market economy where private companies and businesses are free from government interference.
  • This is done by privatizing companies and deregulating the economy – done by UK PM Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.
  • Nozick argued that this would limit the state’s power and give them more time to focus on the essentials of running the country.
  • Rand also argued that a free market allows individuals to express themselves free from state control.

The State

• ‘Importance of Order’

  • Nearly all Conservative thinkers see the state as more important than society because the role of the state is to create order so that individuals can thrive and fulfill their own self-interests.
  • Oakeshott stated the role of the state was to “prevent the bad rather than create the good”.
  • Hobbes also argued that safety and security are impossible without proper authority and law & order.

• ‘Hierarchy & Ruling Class’

  • Traditional conservatives advocate for a hierarchical state which represents an unequal society where power is unevenly distributed.
  • Hobbes believed that power should be strongly concentrated to create a leviathan which would ensure order.
  • Most conservatives support the idea of an elite ‘ruling class’. The idea of paternalism is linked to aristocratic people who are ‘born to rule’. However, thinkers like Burke still argued for a constitution to limit their power.

• ‘Empiricism’

  • Both Burke and Oakeshott do not believe that the state should be strictly guided by ideology – instead they should be guided by experience and what has worked in the past based on evidence. This is known as empiricism.
  • Oakeshott described this as “a preference for what is known rather than envisaged”.
  • He also summarized this with his nautical metaphor, the state is a ship “without agreed port of destination” and the aim is simply to “stay afloat”. The ship is a vessel which rescues its passengers from the “fatal waters” of anarchy and provide them with “desk space”.

• ‘Small State’

  • New Right tinkers reject the idea of empiricism. Nozick argued that the nautical metaphor was too vague and would lead to the ship of state being blown off course by the enemies of conservatism.
  • Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher was certainly someone who was driven by ideology – “the lady is not for turning”.
  • Rand and Nozick agreed with a small state, “the small state is a strong state”.
  • If the state is overburdened with social responsibilities, it will be distracted from its primary focus of ensuring law & order and security.
  • Nozick argued to “roll back the frontiers of the state”, therefore making it “leaner and fitter”.

Traditional Conservatism

• ‘Importance of Authority’

  • Hobbes believed that the principal purpose of conservatism was to ensure that there was proper authority and law & order in society.
  • Hobbes was inspired by the chaos and upheaval of the English Civil War, whilst he did not support the monarchy he supported being guided by ‘reason and logic’.
  • It was a focus on law & order that contributed to his idea of leviathan, a huge all-powerful state which provides protection for those that live in it.

• ‘Evolutionary Change’

  • Burke was inspired by the mayhem of the French Revolution.
  • He thought that quick and radical change is not compatible with the imperfection of human nature.
  • Burke argued for “change to conserve”; he knew that change was inevitable but should be pursued slowly, carefully and respecting tradition.

• ‘One-Nation’

  • After the inequalities of the Industrial Revolution, conservatives thought that fixing these divisions would prevent any revolutions or upheavals.
  • Conservative PM Benjamin Disraeli fashioned the idea of ‘one nation’ which promoted all classes being part of the same family – paternalism.
  • Disraeli famously said “the palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy”.
  • As PM Disraeli extended the franchise and passed the Factory Act 1874 which dealt with working conditions in factories.

• ‘Post-War Consensus & Middle Way’

  • After the social policies of the 1945 Labour government, many conservatives decided it was necessary to accept nationalization, the welfare state and the NHS which they had previously opposed. For 2/3rds of its history, the NHS has been run by Conservative governments.
  • Harold MacMillan was one of those who advocated this with his ‘middle way’.
  • This also links to the conservative focus on tradition and empiricism.

New Right Conservatism

• ‘Failing Economies’

  • New Right and Neo-Liberal thinkers blamed the economic problems and unemployment of the 1970s on state-owned industries, high public spending and high taxation, e.g. the enlarged state.
  • These ideas were at the heart of the ideologies of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, who were elected in 1979 and 1980, respectively.
  • Both Thatcher and Reagan were influenced by thinkers Rand and Nozick.

• ‘Failing Societies’

  • New Right and Neo-Liberal thinkers were highly critical of the welfare state and other social reforms.
  • Rand believed they led to a ‘dependency culture’ as people had become “indifferent to notions of self-reliance”.
  • They did not see these efforts as helping individuals, instead they stifled their self-determination and focused exclusively on minority groups.
  • Republican President Richard Nixon attempted to appeal to the ‘silent majority’ of people who he said were being ignored by the state.

• ‘Failing States’

  • Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, there had been a lot of social unrest with industrial strikes and protests over nuclear weapons and the Vietnam war.
  • New Right Conservatives such as Nozick saw this as the basis for revolution.
  • Nozick said that the UK in the 1970s was “ripe for Marxism”, hence why New Right Conservatives thought the state should be primarily concerned with keeping law & order.

• ‘Neo-Conservatism’

  • New Right thinkers like Rand and Nozick wanted an update on traditional conservative values known as ‘Neo-Conservatism’.
  • This links most strongly to Hobbe’s idea of a strong state, as Rand called it “smaller in scope, stronger in effect”.
  • A neo-conservative state includes a tougher approach to law & order and self-defense, less tolerance towards immigration which threatens national identity and less tolerance to abortion and homosexuality. (Thatcher’s Section 28).
  • This was the opposite to the One Nation approach as it was more focused on discipline than social reform.

• ‘Neo-Liberalism’

  • New Right thinkers also saw to update certain aspects of classic liberalism known as ‘Neo Liberalism’.
  • In particular, they supported the idea of minimal states, which Nozick referred to as a ‘minarchist state’.
  • This included ideas such as negative liberty, laissez- faire economics, less focus on welfarism – “rolling back the frontiers of the state”.
  • In particular, Nozick wanted a reduction in taxation as he stated “tax is theft”. This would be matched in a reduction in government spending as privatization rather than nationalization.

Conservatism in Action

• Reaction to English Civil War and French Revolution
• Disraeli’s ‘One Nation’
• Middle way
• Silent Majority
• Thatcher & Reagan
• Section 28
• ‘Big Society’

Views

Traditional Conservatism

• Generally accepting of capitalism
• Importance of Private Property
• ‘Empiricism’
• ‘Paternalism’
• Pragmatism
• One-Nation
• Focus on tradition
• Moderated capitalism
• Cynical/Sceptical of Human Nature
• State’s role in maintaining law & order

New-Right Conservatism

• Reject Socialist views, particularly around the state
• Focus on individuals
• Conviction
• Driven by self-interest
• Atomism
• Dependency Culture
• ‘Tax is theft’
• Minarchist State
• More positive view of Human Nature

Key Thinkers and Their Core Perspectives