166 - Chapter 1 outline everything

Anatomy and Physiology Overview

• Anatomy and Physiology outline the structure (Anatomy) and function (Physiology) of living organisms.

Anatomy

• Definition: The study of internal and external structures of the body, often described as "a cutting open" to understand physical relationships among body parts.

Types of Anatomy

• Macroscopic Anatomy (Gross Anatomy): Examines structures that can be seen without magnification.

• Microscopic Anatomy: Involves structures not visible without magnification.

  • Dissecting Microscope: Used at the tissue level.

  • Light Microscope: For viewing basic cell structures.

  • Electron Microscope: Allows for the observation of individual molecules.

Physiology

• Definition: The study of how living organisms perform their vital functions, explaining how various systems operate and respond.

Interrelation of Structure and Function

• Anatomical details affect function.

• Physiological mechanisms are comprehended in light of structural relationships.

• Example: The elbow joint demonstrating how structure facilitates movement and function.

Levels of Organization

• Chemical Level:

  • Atoms: The smallest stable units of matter.

  • Atoms combine to form molecules, with shape determining functional properties.

• Cellular Level:

  • Cytology: Study of cells.

  • Cell Theory:

    • Cells are structural building blocks of all living things.

    • Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

    • Cells perform all vital life functions.

• Tissue Level:

  • Groups of cells working towards a common function; Histology is the study of tissues.

  • Four primary tissue types:

    • Epithelial

    • Connective

    • Muscle

    • Neural

• Organ Level:

  • Formed by two or more tissues working together (e.g., liver, stomach, heart).

Organ Systems

• There are 11 organ systems in the body:

  • Integumentary

  • Skeletal

  • Muscular

  • Nervous

  • Endocrine

  • Cardiovascular

  • Lymphatic

  • Respiratory

  • Digestive

  • Urinary

  • Reproductive.

• Each system comprises multiple organs working in conjunction.

Integumentary System

• Organs: Skin and associated structures.

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, and sensation.

Skeletal System

• Organs: Bones and ligaments.

• Functions: Support, protection of tissues, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.

Muscular System

• Organs: Skeletal muscles and tendons.

• Functions: Produces movement, supports posture, and generates heat.

Nervous System

• Organs: Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral Nervous System (nerves).

• Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli and coordinates activities of other systems.

Endocrine System

• Organs: Thyroid, pituitary, kidneys, pancreas, gonads.

• Functions: Directs long-term changes, adjusts metabolic activity, and controls development changes.

Cardiovascular System

• Organs: Heart, blood vessels, and blood.

• Functions: Transports cells and dissolved materials (nutrients, waste, gases).

Lymphatic System

• Organs: Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils.

• Functions: Immunity and fluid balance in the bloodstream.

Respiratory System

• Organs: Lungs, nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, bronchi.

• Functions: Air delivery for gas exchange, sound production, and acid-base balance.

Digestive System

• Organs: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.

• Functions: Food processing, nutrient absorption, water reclamation, and waste elimination.

Urinary System

• Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

• Functions: Waste excretion, fluid and electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance.

Female Reproductive System

• Organs: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands.

• Functions: Ovum and hormone production and supporting embryonic development.

Male Reproductive System

• Organs: Testes, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate gland, penis.

• Functions: Sperm and hormone production.

Anatomical Terminology

• Based on Latin/Greek origins; important for clear communication in biology.

• Eponyms: Named after individuals (e.g., "Achilles tendon" refers to "calcaneal tendon").

Surface Anatomy

• Terms related to body regions (e.g., cephalic, cervical, thoracic, etc.) defined in relation to anatomical landmarks.

Directional Terms

• Superior: above; Inferior: below; Anterior: front; Posterior: back; Medial: midline; Lateral: side; Proximal: closer to trunk; Distal: further from trunk; Superficial: near surface; Deep: away from surface.

Anatomical Position

• Defined as standing, hands at sides, palms forward, feet together, and eyes facing forward.

Sections and Planes

• Sagittal Plane: Divides into right and left sides.

• Coronal Plane: Divides into anterior and posterior portions.

• Transverse Plane: Divides into upper and lower parts.

Body Cavities

• Dorsal Body Cavities:

  • Cranial (contains the brain) and vertebral (contains spinal cord).

• Ventral Body Cavities:

  • Thoracic (contains heart and lungs), abdominal (contains digestive organs), pelvic (contains reproductive organs).

Homeostasis

• Definition: A dynamic equilibrium in the body's internal environment essential for survival.

• Homeostatic Regulation: Organ systems respond to internal and external disturbances, maintaining system balance.

  • Nervous System: Rapid responses.

  • Endocrine System: Slower, hormone-based responses.

Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative Feedback: Opposes the initial stimulus to return to homeostasis. Example: Temperature control.

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies the change; leads to an extreme response. Examples: Blood clotting and labor process.

Levels of Control

• Intracellular Controls: Operate at cell level (genes, enzymes, regulatory proteins).

• Intrinsic Controls: Operate at tissue and organ levels.

• Extrinsic Controls: Involve nervous and endocrine (hormonal) systems.