166 - Chapter 1 outline everything

Anatomy and Physiology Overview

  • Anatomy and Physiology outline the structure (Anatomy) and function (Physiology) of living organisms.

Anatomy

  • Definition: The study of internal and external structures of the body, often described as "a cutting open" to understand physical relationships among body parts.

Types of Anatomy

  • Macroscopic Anatomy (Gross Anatomy): Examines structures that can be seen without magnification.

  • Microscopic Anatomy: Involves structures not visible without magnification.

    • Dissecting Microscope: Used at the tissue level.

    • Light Microscope: For viewing basic cell structures.

    • Electron Microscope: Allows for the observation of individual molecules.

Physiology

  • Definition: The study of how living organisms perform their vital functions, explaining how various systems operate and respond.

Interrelation of Structure and Function

  • Anatomical details affect function.

  • Physiological mechanisms are comprehended in light of structural relationships.

  • Example: The elbow joint demonstrating how structure facilitates movement and function.

Levels of Organization

  • Chemical Level:

    • Atoms: The smallest stable units of matter.

    • Atoms combine to form molecules, with shape determining functional properties.

  • Cellular Level:

    • Cytology: Study of cells.

    • Cell Theory:

      • Cells are structural building blocks of all living things.

      • Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

      • Cells perform all vital life functions.

  • Tissue Level:

    • Groups of cells working towards a common function; Histology is the study of tissues.

    • Four primary tissue types:

      • Epithelial

      • Connective

      • Muscle

      • Neural

  • Organ Level:

    • Formed by two or more tissues working together (e.g., liver, stomach, heart).

Organ Systems

  • There are 11 organ systems in the body:

    • Integumentary

    • Skeletal

    • Muscular

    • Nervous

    • Endocrine

    • Cardiovascular

    • Lymphatic

    • Respiratory

    • Digestive

    • Urinary

    • Reproductive.

  • Each system comprises multiple organs working in conjunction.

Integumentary System

  • Organs: Skin and associated structures.

  • Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, and sensation.

Skeletal System

  • Organs: Bones and ligaments.

  • Functions: Support, protection of tissues, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.

Muscular System

  • Organs: Skeletal muscles and tendons.

  • Functions: Produces movement, supports posture, and generates heat.

Nervous System

  • Organs: Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral Nervous System (nerves).

  • Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli and coordinates activities of other systems.

Endocrine System

  • Organs: Thyroid, pituitary, kidneys, pancreas, gonads.

  • Functions: Directs long-term changes, adjusts metabolic activity, and controls development changes.

Cardiovascular System

  • Organs: Heart, blood vessels, and blood.

  • Functions: Transports cells and dissolved materials (nutrients, waste, gases).

Lymphatic System

  • Organs: Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils.

  • Functions: Immunity and fluid balance in the bloodstream.

Respiratory System

  • Organs: Lungs, nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, bronchi.

  • Functions: Air delivery for gas exchange, sound production, and acid-base balance.

Digestive System

  • Organs: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, pancreas.

  • Functions: Food processing, nutrient absorption, water reclamation, and waste elimination.

Urinary System

  • Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

  • Functions: Waste excretion, fluid and electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance.

Female Reproductive System

  • Organs: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands.

  • Functions: Ovum and hormone production and supporting embryonic development.

Male Reproductive System

  • Organs: Testes, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate gland, penis.

  • Functions: Sperm and hormone production.

Anatomical Terminology

  • Based on Latin/Greek origins; important for clear communication in biology.

  • Eponyms: Named after individuals (e.g., "Achilles tendon" refers to "calcaneal tendon").

Surface Anatomy

  • Terms related to body regions (e.g., cephalic, cervical, thoracic, etc.) defined in relation to anatomical landmarks.

Directional Terms

  • Superior: above; Inferior: below; Anterior: front; Posterior: back; Medial: midline; Lateral: side; Proximal: closer to trunk; Distal: further from trunk; Superficial: near surface; Deep: away from surface.

Anatomical Position

  • Defined as standing, hands at sides, palms forward, feet together, and eyes facing forward.

Sections and Planes

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides into right and left sides.

  • Coronal Plane: Divides into anterior and posterior portions.

  • Transverse Plane: Divides into upper and lower parts.

Body Cavities

  • Dorsal Body Cavities:

    • Cranial (contains the brain) and vertebral (contains spinal cord).

  • Ventral Body Cavities:

    • Thoracic (contains heart and lungs), abdominal (contains digestive organs), pelvic (contains reproductive organs).

Homeostasis

  • Definition: A dynamic equilibrium in the body's internal environment essential for survival.

  • Homeostatic Regulation: Organ systems respond to internal and external disturbances, maintaining system balance.

    • Nervous System: Rapid responses.

    • Endocrine System: Slower, hormone-based responses.

Feedback Mechanisms

  • Negative Feedback: Opposes the initial stimulus to return to homeostasis. Example: Temperature control.

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies the change; leads to an extreme response. Examples: Blood clotting and labor process.

Levels of Control

  • Intracellular Controls: Operate at cell level (genes, enzymes, regulatory proteins).

  • Intrinsic Controls: Operate at tissue and organ levels.

  • Extrinsic Controls: Involve nervous and endocrine (hormonal) systems.