How successful was Elizabeth I’s foreign policy in the years 1568 to 1589?

Paragraph 1: Intervention in France and Scotland (1559-1560, 1562-1564)

Point: Elizabeth’s intervention in both France and Scotland in the years 1559 to 1564 demonstrated her determination to protect England’s interests in these regions.

Evidence: In Scotland, Elizabeth supported the Lords of the Congregation in their rebellion against the French-backed regent Mary of Guise. Her navy blocked French reinforcements at the Firth of Forth, and the Treaty of Berwick (1560) ensured English influence in Scotland. In France, Elizabeth intervened in the French Wars of Religion by sending support to the Huguenots, including a £30,000 loan and 6,000 men to the Prince of Condé in 1562, though the Huguenots were eventually defeated. The Treaty of Troyes in 1564, however, saw England lose its indemnity from the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis and Calais permanently.

Explanation: While Elizabeth’s involvement in Scotland successfully curbed French influence and secured the Protestant Lords’ control over the country, her intervention in France had mixed results. Though she helped the Huguenots initially, the defeat of their forces and the permanent loss of Calais indicated a failure to gain any lasting advantage in France. Nonetheless, Elizabeth succeeded in securing the peace and protecting her borders from French threats.

Historical Concept: Cause and Consequence – Elizabeth’s foreign policy in these years had lasting consequences, particularly in terms of English influence in Scotland, where the Treaty of Edinburgh in 1560 effectively reduced French power. However, her intervention in France ended with the long-term consequence of permanently losing Calais, which had been a symbol of English control over French territory since 1347.

Paragraph 2: The Issue of Mary, Queen of Scots (1567-1587)

Point: Elizabeth’s handling of Mary, Queen of Scots, was crucial to her foreign policy success, as Mary’s claims to the English throne posed a significant threat.

Evidence: Mary, a Catholic and legitimate claimant to the English throne, was viewed by many Catholics in England as the rightful queen. Elizabeth’s hesitations to execute Mary allowed for several Catholic plots against her, such as the Ridolfi Plot (1571), the Throckmorton Plot (1583), and the Babington Plot (1586). The latter plot led to Mary’s trial and execution in 1587 after being implicated in a conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth.

Explanation: Elizabeth's reluctance to execute Mary until 1587 meant that Mary remained a focal point for Catholic conspiracies, leading to numerous threats to Elizabeth’s reign. However, by finally ordering Mary’s execution, Elizabeth eliminated a significant Catholic rival. The execution, while a success in terms of securing Elizabeth’s position, also alienated Catholic powers in Europe and further strained relations with Spain, ultimately contributing to the tensions that led to the Spanish Armada.

Historical Concept: Cause and Consequence – Elizabeth’s decision to delay Mary’s execution prolonged the political instability caused by Mary’s presence in England. The eventual execution marked a turning point in Elizabeth's foreign policy, leading to more aggressive conflict with Catholic powers, especially Spain, whose support for Catholic plots against Elizabeth had been ongoing.

Paragraph 3: Relations with Spain and the Spanish Armada (1560s-1588)

Point: Elizabeth’s relations with Spain deteriorated significantly in the late 16th century, culminating in the failed Spanish Armada of 1588.

Evidence: Early relations with Spain had been relatively cordial but soured due to Elizabeth’s support for the Dutch revolt and her involvement in piratical actions, such as John Hawkins’ Caribbean expeditions and the seizure of Spanish treasure in 1568. The tensions escalated following the Pacification of Ghent (1576) and the Treaty of Joinville (1584), aligning Spain with Catholic France. In 1588, Philip II launched the Spanish Armada, which was defeated by the English navy, forcing the Armada to retreat.

Explanation: Elizabeth’s support for the Protestant cause in Europe, especially aiding the Dutch rebels and challenging Spanish trade routes, had provoked Philip II. The failure of the Spanish Armada was a significant victory for England and demonstrated the effectiveness of Elizabeth’s naval forces. However, it did not end the conflict, and the war at sea continued for another 16 years, with English naval forces engaged in skirmishes and expeditions, such as the capture of Cadiz in 1587.

Historical Concept: Change and Continuity – The defeat of the Armada marked a significant change in the balance of power in Europe, boosting England's status as a naval power. However, the underlying tensions between England and Spain continued, indicating that while Elizabeth had achieved a short-term victory, the long-term threat from Spain remained. The subsequent 16 years of naval warfare showed the continued instability in English-Spanish relations.