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Introduction of Politics and Government

“Man is by nature a political animal”by Aristotle -> Athens are separated by city states called “Polis”, during those times it was democratic. It is dependent and by creating a law to regulate laws and ideas where he collects ideas. They have collective ideas to form policies the main essence is collection of ideas.

VIEWS ON POLITICS
–Art of the Government-Politics concerns the affairs of the state. It focuses on the personnel and machinery of the government.

–-Public affairs- Politics is the conduct and management of public interest and, therefore, political affairs.

—Compromise & Consensus-Politics attempts to resolve conflict through discussion, compromise, bargain, and consensus, wherein people arrive at a binding decision.Hannah Arend

—Power- Politics involves the exercise of authority in the production, distribution, and use of resources. This describes who gets what and under what circumstances.
David Easton: Who gets what and under what circumstance

What is Politics? “Politics is an activity that involves the interaction of people whose

relationship is characterized by conflict and cooperation, and come together to solve

such disagreements through binding solutions.

Characteristics of Politics
1 Politics always involves the making of collective decisions for group of people.

2 Those decisions are made by some members of the group, exercising power over othermembers of the group.

Approaches (2)
*Traditional approach - The Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, are usually associated

with this tradition as they asked what “should” or “ought”instead of what “is.” This tradition

underscored the analytical study of doctrines that have become the major focus of political thought.

*Scientific/Theoratical approach-It is defined as the systematic study of political and

governmental institutions and processes. It is a discipline that seeks to understand the

relationship between individual and political institutions.

Political science

● The scientific study of politics 

● Study of politics, political systems, and governments

● Focuses on the theory and practice of government

● Theory of state and government

● Seeks to study the origin, nature and

functions of the state, government and its

all organs

● Deals with the study of power in society,

politics, and government

Father of Political Science- Aristotle
Mather of Modern Political Science- Niccolo Machiavelli

Government- It is an instrument of the state through which the will of the people is expressed, carried out, and formulated. Thus, the government serves as the bridge that connects the people to the state.

Governance- It is the exercise of power/authority by political leader for the well-being of their country‘s citizens or subject. It also refers to the manner of steering/governing and or directing and controlling a group of people or the state.

Good Governance- It is an instrument of the state through which the will of the people is expressed, carried out, and formulated. Thus, the government serves as the bridge that connects the people to the state.

Good Governance assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into

account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

PARTICIPATION-Both men and women, must partake directly or indirectly (having a representative) in every governmental process. This is because participation is an essential cornerstone of good governance.

RULE OF LAW-The rule of law means to say that good governance manifested through the

impartiality of fair legal framework such as the promotion of a full protection of human rights and dignity especially those members of minorites.

TRANSPARENCY-It means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement.

RESPONSIVENESS-Good Governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all

stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

CONSENSUS ORIENTED- Good governance requires mediation of the different nterests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interests of the whole community and how this can be achieved.

EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY- Good governance means that

processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making

the best use of resources at their disposal.

ACCOUNTABILITY-Governmental institutions as well as private sector and civil

society organizations must be accountable to the public and their institutional stakeholders.

What is political ideology? 

Ideology is one of the most controversial concepts encountered in political analysis. Although the term now tends to be used in a neutral sense, to refer to a developed social philosophy or world-view. 

Ideology From a social-scientific viewpoint, an ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power relationships.
Characteristics of Ideology?

-It presents a description of the way things are, particularly in the form of a “worldview”

-It offers a model of a desired future, an idea of a “good society”;

-It explains how political change should be carried out, beginning from what is current to what

should be in the future.

.De Tracy’s ‘new science of ideas’ (ideas + logos, study of)

- to view ideology as an instrument of social control to ensure compliance and subordination. Relying heavily on the examples of fascism and communism, 

The defining feature of ideology in the Marxist sense is that it is false: it mystifies and confuses subordinate classes by concealing from them the contradictions on which all class societies are based. As far as capitalism is concerned, the ideology of the property-owning bourgeoisie (bourgeois ideology) fosters delusion or ‘false consciousness’.

Michael Oakeshott - ‘men sail a boundless and bottomless sea’. Ideologies are seen as abstract. 
                                    ‘systems of thought.
                                -Conservatives have traditionally dismissed the notion that they subscribe to   
                                    an ideology.

An inclusive definition of ‘ideology’ (one that applies to all political traditions) must therefore be neutral: it must reject the notion that ideologies are ‘good’ or ‘bad’, true or false, or liberating or oppressive. This is the virtue of the modern, social-scientific meaning of the term. However, much of the debate about ideology since the mid-twentieth century has focused on predictions of its demise, or at least of its fading relevance. This came to be known as the ‘end of ideology’ debate. It was initiated in the 1950s, stimulated by the collapse of fascism at the end of World War II and the decline of communism in the developed West.

In The End of Ideology (1960), the US sociologist Daniel Bell (1919–2011) declared that the stock of political ideas had been exhausted. In his view, ethical and ideological questions had become irrelevant because in most Western societies parties competed for power simply by promising higher levels of economic growth and material affluence.

Rationalism: The belief that the world can be understood and explained through the exercise of human reason, based on assumptions about its rational structure.
Pragmatism: A theory or practice that places primary emphasis on practical circumstances and goals; pragmatism implies a distrust of abstract ideas

Political ideology arose out of the transition from feudalism to industrial capitalism. In simple terms, the earliest, or ‘classical’, ideologies – liberalism, conservatism and socialism – developed as contrasting attempts to shape emerging industrial society. This meant that the central theme in ideological debate was the battle between two rival economic philosophies: capitalism (see p. 153) and socialism.

John Locke (1632–1704) 

- was a key thinker of early liberalism, placing particular emphasis on ‘natural’ or God-given rights, identified as the rights to life, liberty and property. An exponent of representative government and toleration, Locke’s views had a considerable impact on the American Revolution. His most important political works are A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) and Two Treatises of Government.

Liberalism

-sometimes portrayed as a meta-ideology, capable of embracing a broad range of rival values and beliefs

- In its earliest form, liberalism was a political doctrine, it attacked absolutism and instead advocated constitutional and, later, representative government.

-The early nineteenth century, a distinctively liberal economic creed had developed that extolled the virtues of laissez-faire and condemned all forms of government intervention. From the late nineteenth century onwards, however, a form of social liberalism emerged that looked more favourably on welfare reform and economic intervention. Such an emphasis became the characteristic theme of modern, or twentieth-century, liberalism.

Meta-ideology: A higher or second-order ideology that lays down the grounds on which ideological debate can take place.
Progress: Moving forwards; the belief that history is characterized by human advancement based on the accumulation of knowledge and wisdom.
Meritocracy: Rule by the talented; the principle that rewards and positions should be distributed on the basis of ability

KEY IDEAS OF LIBERALISM

Individualism: It reflects a belief in the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to any social group or collective body, This implies both that they are of equal moral worth and that they possess separate and unique identities–. This has contributed to the view that liberalism is morally neutral.
Freedom: is the core value of liberalism; it is given priority over, say, equality, justice or authority. They recognize that ‘freedom under the law’, as they recognize that one person’s liberty may be a threat to the liberty of others; liberty may become license. They therefore endorse the ideal that individuals should enjoy the maximum possible liberty consistent with a like liberty for all.

Reason: Encourages liberals to believe in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve their differences through debate and argument, rather than bloodshed and war.

Equality: The belief that individuals are ‘born equal’, at least in terms of moral worth. This is reflected in a liberal commitment to equal rights and entitlements, they favour equality of opportunity. 

Toleration:  The willingness of people to allow others to think, speak and act in ways of which they disapprove, it promotes debate and intellectual progress by ensuring that all beliefs are tested in a free market of ideas.
Consent: authority and social relationships should always be based on consent or willing agreement.
Constitutionalism: They are constantly aware of the danger that government may become a tyranny against the individual, This goal can be attained through the fragmentation of government power, the establishment of a codified or ‘written’ constitution embodying a bill of rights that defines the relationship between the state and the individual

Classical liberalism
-The central theme of classical liberalism is a commitment to an extreme form of individualism, C. B. Macpherson (1962) termed ‘possessive individualism’, they are taken to be the proprietors of their own persons and capacities, owing nothing to society or to other individuals. 

-This implies a deeply unsympathetic attitude towards the state and all forms of government intervention.
-In Tom Paine’s words, the state is a ‘necessary evil’. It is ‘necessary’---establishes order and security. However, it is ‘evil’ in that it imposes a collective will on society, thus limiting the freedom and responsibilities of the individual. The classical liberal ideal is therefore the establishment of a minimal or ‘nightwatchman’ state. Limited to the protection of citizens from the encroachments of fellow citizens.

Economic Liberalism- this position is underpinned by a deep faith in the mechanisms of the free market and the belief that the economy works best when left alone by government. Laissez-faire capitalism is thus seen as guaranteeing prosperity, upholding individual liberty.

Modern liberalism is characterized by a more sympathetic attitude towards state intervention. The term ‘liberal’ is invariably taken to imply support for ‘big’ government rather than ‘minimal’ government. Industrial capitalism had merely generated new forms of injustice. From this perspective, freedom does not just mean being left alone. It is linked to personal development and the flourishing of the individual; that is, the ability of the individual to gain fulfilment and achieve self-realization.  Example of the free market is Dubai, "centrally-planned free-market capitalism.”

-This view provided the basis for social or welfare liberalism, the recognition that state intervention, particularly in the form of social welfare, can enlarge liberty by safeguarding individuals from the social evils that blight individual existence. the ‘five giants’: want, ignorance, idleness, squalor and disease.

-In the same way, modern liberals abandoned their belief in laissez-faire capitalism, largely as a result of J. M. Keynes’ insight that growth and prosperity could be maintained only through a system of managed or regulated capitalism, Nevertheless, modern liberals’ support for collective provision and government intervention has always been conditional. Their goal is to raise individuals to the point where they are able, once again, to take responsibility for their own circumstances and make their own moral choices.
-The most influential modern attempt to reconcile the principles of liberalism with the politics of welfare and redistribution was undertaken by John Rawls.

Atomism: The belief that society is made up of a collection of largely selfsufficient individuals who owe little or nothing to one another.
Economic liberalism: A belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism tending naturally to deliver general prosperity and opportunities for all.
Big government: Interventionist government, usually understood to imply economic management and social regulation. 

Conservatism first emerged in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century. They arose as a reaction against the growing pace of economic and political change.
-stood in defence of an increasingly embattled traditional social order. However, from the outset, divisions in conservative thought were apparent.
-Joseph de Maistre, This conservatism was starkly autocratic and reactionary, rejecting out of hand any idea of reform. A more cautious, more flexible and, ultimately, more successful form of conservatism nevertheless developed.

-Edmund Burke’s belief in ‘change in order to conserve’ The high point of this tradition in the UK came in the 1950s as the Conservative Party came to accept the postwar settlement and espouse its own version of Keynesian social democracy. However, such ideas increasingly came under pressure from the 1970s onwards as a result of the emergence of the New Right.

Redistribution: A narrowing of material inequalities brought about through a combination of progressive taxation and welfare provision.
Ancien régime: (French) Literally, ‘old order’; usually linked with the absolutist structures that predated the French Revolution.
Paternalism: An attitude or policy that demonstrates care or concern for those unable to help themselves, as in the (supposed) relationship between a father and a child.

Noblesse oblige: (French) Literally, the ‘obligations of the nobility’; in general terms, the responsibility to guide or protect those less fortunate or less privileged. 

Toryism: An ideological stance within conservatism characterized by a belief in hierarchy, an emphasis on tradition, and support for duty and organicism

Tory position: reflects not so much the ideal of social equality as a cohesive and stable hierarchy that arises organically

KEY IDEAS OF CONSERVATISM

-Tradition: The central theme of conservative thought, ‘the desire to conserve. In this view, tradition reflects the accumulated wisdom of the past, and institutions and practices that have been ‘tested by time’

-Pragmatism: Abstract principles and systems of thought are therefore distrusted, and instead faith is placed in experience, history, and, above all, pragmatism:  the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstances and practical goals. 

-Human imperfection: In this view, human beings are limited, dependent and security-seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and the tried and tested.
-Organicism: conservatives have traditionally viewed society as an organic whole, Society is thus structured by natural necessity, the whole is more than a collection of its individual parts
-Hierarchy: These reflect the differing roles and responsibilities of, for example, employers and workers, teachers and pupils, and parents and children. Indeed, as a person’s ‘station in life’ is determined largely by luck and the accident of birth, the prosperous and privileged acquire a particular responsibility of care for the less fortunate.
-Authority: is always exercised ‘from above’, providing leadership, guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education to act wisely in their own interests.Although the idea of a natural aristocracy was once influential, authority and leadership are now more commonly seen as resulting from experience and training. 

-Property: Conservatives see property ownership as being vital because it gives people security and a measure of independence from government, n this view, we are, in a sense, merely custodians of property that has either been inherited from past generations (‘the family silver’), or may be of value to future ones.

Edmund Burke (1729–97)-  seen as the father of the Anglo-American conservative tradition. Burke’s enduring reputation is based on a series of works, notably Reflections on the Revolution in France, that were critical of the French Revolution. He held that the French monarchy was, in part, responsible for its own fate since it had obstinately refused to ‘change in order to conserve’

-The One-Nation tradition embodies not only a disposition towards social reform, but also an essentially pragmatic attitude towards economic policy, This is clearly seen in the ‘middle way’ approach. This approach eschewed the two ideological models: 
-laissezfaire capitalism
-State socialism and central planning
- The former was rejected on the grounds that it results in a free-for-all, and penalizes the weak and vulnerable. The latter was dismissed because it produces a state monolith and crushes all forms of independence and enterprise. The solution therefore lies in a blend of market competition and government regulation, or what the UK prime minister Harold Macmillan called ‘private enterprise without selfishness’.

Natural aristocracy: The idea that talent and leadership are innate or inbred qualities that cannot be acquired through effort or self advancement.
Christian democracy: An ideological tendency within European conservatism, characterized by commitment to social market principles and qualified interventionism. Christian democracy thus highlights the importance of intermediate institutions, such as churches, unions and business groups, bound together by the notion of ‘social partnership’.
The New Right: represents a departure in conservative thought that amounted to a kind of counter-revolution against both the post-1945. New Right ideas can be traced back to the 1970s, the apparent failure of Keynesian social democracy, signalled by the end of the postwar boom, and growing concern about social breakdown and the decline of authority. 

-Andrew Gamble’s (1981) words, ‘the free economy and the strong state.

Friedrich von Hayek (1899–1992)- Austrian economist and political philosopher. 

                                                       - he was a firm believer in individualism and market order, and an implacable critic of socialism. The Road to Serfdom (1948) was a pioneering work that attacked economic interventionism. In later works such as The Constitution of Liberty (1960) and Law, Legislation and Liberty (1979) Hayek developed themes in political philosophy
                                                     

Neoliberalism is an updated version of classical political economy. The central pillars of neoliberalism are the market and the individual. Goal is to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state. unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth, and widespread prosperity, the ‘dead hand’ of the state saps initiative and discourages enterprise, ‘private, good; public, bad’.

Margaret Thatcher’s famous assertion that ‘there is no such thing as society, only individuals and their families’. The ‘nanny state’ is seen to breed a culture of dependence and to undermine freedom. 

Nanny state: A state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that welfare programmes are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual. 

Neoconservatism reasserts nineteenth-century conservative social principles. The conservative New Right wishes, above all, to restore authority and return to traditional values, notably those linked to. The enemies of neoconservatism are therefore permissiveness, the cult of the self and ‘doing one’s own thing’,
- multicultural and multi-religious societies with concern, on the basis that they are conflict-ridden and inherently unstable.

-is sceptical about both multiculturalism and the growing influence of supranational bodies such as the UN and the EU.


Socialism, although socialist ideas can be traced back to the Levellers and Diggers of the seventeenth century, or to Thomas More’s Utopia, or even Plato’s Republic, It developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism.
-First articulated the interests of artisans and craftsmen threatened by the spread of factory production,
-linked to the growing industrial working class, the ‘factory fodder’ of early industrialization
-Its goal was to abolish a capitalist economy based on market exchange, and replace it with a qualitatively different socialist society, usually to be constructed on the principle of common ownership.

From the late nineteenth century onwards, however, a reformist socialist tradition emerged that reflected the gradual integration of the working classes into capitalist society through an improvement in working conditions and wages, This brand of socialism proclaimed the possibility of a peaceful, gradual and legal transition to socialism.

During much of the twentieth century, the socialist movement was thus divided into two rival camps. Revolutionary socialists, following the example of Lenin and the Bolsheviks, called themselves ‘communists’, while reformist socialists, who practised a form of constitutional politics, embraced what increasingly came to be called ‘social democracy.’
Permissiveness: The willingness to allow people to make their own moral choices; permissiveness suggests that there are no authoritative values.
Revisionism: The modification of original or established beliefs; revisionism can imply the abandonment of principle or a loss of conviction.

KEY IDEAS OF SOCIALISM
Community: The core of socialism is the vision of human beings as social creatures linked by the existence of a common humanity, importance: Socialists are inclined to emphasize nurture over nature.

Fraternity:  they are bound together by a sense of comradeship or fraternity (literally meaning ‘brotherhood’, but broadened in this context to embrace all humans.) and to favour collectivism over individualism.
Social equality is the central value of socialism, an equality of outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity. They believe that a measure of social equality is the essential guarantee of social stability and cohesion, Marxists have believed in absolute social equality, brought about by the collectivization of production wealth, social democrats have favoured merely narrowing material inequalities, often being more concerned with equalizing opportunities than outcomes.

Need: This reflects the belief that the satisfaction of basic needs (hunger, thirst, shelter, health, personal security, and so on) is a prerequisite for a worthwhile human existence and participation in social life
Social class: has often been associated with a form of class politics.
Common ownership: The relationship between socialism and common ownership has been deeply controversial. Some see it as the end of socialism itself, and others see it instead simply as a means of generating broader equality.

Both forms of socialism, however, experienced crises in the late twentieth century that encouraged some to proclaim the ‘death of socialism’ and the emergence of a post-socialist society.
Marxism- has constituted the principal alternative to the liberal rationalism, As a political force, in the form of the international communist movement, Marxism has also been seen as the major enemy of Western capitalism, This highlights a central difficulty in dealing with Marxism: the difference between Marxism as a social philosophy the collapse of communism at the end of the twentieth century need not betoken the death of Marxism as a political ideology; indeed, it may give Marxism, now divorced from the vestiges of Leninism and Stalinism, a fresh lease of life.

Leninism: Lenin’s theoretical contributions to Marxism, notably his belief in the need for a ‘vanguard’ party to raise the proletariat to class consciousness.
Stalinism: The structures of Stalin’s USSR, especially a centrally placed economy linked to systematic and brutal political oppression.
Dialectical materialism: The crude and deterministic form of Marxism that dominated intellectual life in orthodox communist states.
Historical materialism: The Marxist theory that holds that economic conditions ultimately structure law, politics, culture and other aspects of social existence.

A form of orthodox Marxism, usually termed ‘dialectical materialism’ (a term coined by Plekhanov, not Marx), came into existence, and was later used as the basis for Soviet communism. This ‘vulgar’ Marxism undoubtedly placed a heavier stress on mechanistic theories and historical determinism than did Marx’s own writings.

Classical Marxism- is a philosophy of history that Engels described as the ‘materialist conception of history’, or historical materialism. This highlights the importance of economic life and the conditions under which people produce and reproduce their means of subsistence.
Marx believed that the driving force of historical change was the dialectic, a process of interaction between competing forces that results in a higher stage of development. In its materialist version, this model implies that historical change is a consequence of internal contradictions. In this case, as a result of conflict between the bourgeoisie or capitalist class, the owners of productive wealth, and the proletariat, who are, in effect, ‘wage slaves’. This conflict is irreconcilable, because the proletariat is necessarily and systematically exploited under capitalism, the bourgeoisie living by extracting ‘surplus value’ from its labour.

According to Marx, the inevitable proletarian revolution will occur once a series of deepening crises have brought the proletariat to full class consciousness.
-The proletarian revolution would usher in a transitionary ‘socialist’ period of development, characterized by the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat

Karl Marx (1818–83) -economist and political thinker, usually portrayed as the father of twentieth-century communism, helped to found the First International, which collapsed in 1871 because of growing antagonism between Marx’s supporters and anarchists led by Bakunin. Marx’s classic work was the three-volume Capital. His best-known and most accessible work is the Communist Manifesto.

Orthodox communism- Marxism in practice is inextricably linked to the experience of Soviet communism,  twentieth-century communism is best understood as a form of Marxism–Leninism: that is, as orthodox Marxism modified by a set of Leninist theories and doctrines.
-Lenin’s central contribution to Marxism was his theory of the revolutionary or vanguard party. This reflected Lenin’s fear that the proletariat.
-would not realize its revolutionary potential because it could not develop beyond ‘trade-union consciousness ': a desire to improve working and living conditions rather than to overthrow capitalism. A revolutionary party, armed with Marxism, was therefore needed to serve as the ‘vanguard of the working class’.

-The USSR was, however, more profoundly affected by Stalin’s ‘second revolution. In reshaping Soviet society, Stalin created a model of orthodox communism that was followed in the post-1945 period by states such as China, North Korea and Cuba, and throughout Eastern Europe. What may be called ‘economic Stalinism’ was initiated with the launch in 1928 of the first Five Year Plan, which brought about the swift and total eradication of private enterprise.

Dictatorship of the proletariat: A temporary proletarian state, established to prevent counter-revolution and oversee the transition from capitalism to communism

During the 1930s, Stalin transformed the USSR into a personal dictatorship through a series of purges that eradicated all vestiges of opposition and debate from the Communist Party.

Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979)- He developed a form of neo-Marxism that drew heavily on Hegel and Freud. Marcuse came to prominence in the 1960s as a leading thinker of the New Left and a ‘guru’ of the student movement.
                                                -He portrayed advanced industrial society as an all-encompassing system of repression that subdued argument and debate, and absorbed opposition.

Although the more brutal features of orthodox communism did not survive Stalin’s death in 1953, the core principles of the Leninist party (hierarchical organization and discipline) and of economic Stalinism (state collectivization and central planning) stubbornly resisted pressure for reform. This was highlighted by Gorbachev’s perestroika reform process (1985–91), which merely succeeded in exposing the failings of the planning system.

The collapse of communism during the 1989–91 period is widely seen as the most significant ideological event of the modern period, betokening

Neo-Marxism- A more complex and subtle form of Marxism developed in Western Europe, tended to be influenced by Hegelian ideas and by the stress on ‘Man the creator’ found in Marx’s early writings, human beings were seen as makers of history, and not simply as puppets controlled by impersonal material forces. This indicated an unwillingness to treat the class struggle as the beginning and end of social analysis.
Perestroika: (Russian) Literally, ‘restructuring’; a slogan that refers to the attempt to liberalize and democratize the Soviet system within a communist framework

Significance of socialism -Socialism has undoubtedly gone through some difficult times since the final decades of the twentieth century.
-This is because it is based on a market mechanism that naturally draws resources to their most profitable use. Socialism’s key flaw is that, by relying on the state to make economic life, whether through a system of comprehensive planning or a mixed economy, it is doomed to inefficiency.
-Hopes for the survival of socialism rest largely on the enduring, and perhaps intrinsic, imperfections of the capitalist system
- capitalism has been thoroughly transformed and represents the best that humankind can ever hope to achieve is a dreadful slur on the human race’. In that sense, socialism is destined to survive if only because it serves as a reminder that human development can extend beyond market individualism.

Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932)- An early member of the German SPD, Bernstein became one of the leading advocates of revisionism, the attempt to revise and modernize orthodox Marxism. n is often seen as one of the founding figures of modern social democracy.

The Hungarian Marxist Georg Lukács (1885–1971) was one of the first to present Marxism as a humanistic philosophy. He emphasized the process of ‘reification’, through which capitalism dehumanizes workers by reducing them to passive objects or marketable commodities. In his Prison Notebooks, written in 1929–35, Antonio Gramsci emphasized the degree to which capitalism was maintained not merely by economic domination, but also by political and cultural factors.

the leading members of which were Theodor Adorno (1903–69), Max Horkheimer (1895–1973) and Herbert Marcuse (see p. 41). Frankfurt theorists developed what was called ‘critical theory’, a blend of Marxist political economy, Hegelian philosophy and Freudian psychology, which had a considerable impact on the New Left in the 1960s.
Social democracy- Social democracy lacks the theoretical coherence of, say, classical liberalism or fundamentalist socialism. social democracy stands for a balance between the market and the state, a balance between the individual and the community. At the heart of social democracy there is a compromise between, on the one hand, an acceptance of capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for generating wealth and, on the other, a desire to distribute wealth in accordance with moral, rather than market, principles.
Fundamentalist socialism: A form of socialism that seeks to abolish capitalism and replace it with a qualitatively different kind of society

John Rawls (1921–2002)- proposed a theory of ‘justice as fairness’ that is based on the belief that social inequality can be justified only if it is of benefit to the least advantaged. This presumption in favour of equality is rooted in Rawls’ belief that most people, deprived of knowledge about their own talents and abilities, would choose to live in an egalitarian society, rather than an inegalitarian one

                                         -His major work, A Theory of Justice

The chief characteristic of modern social democratic thought is a concern for the underdog in society, the weak and vulnerable. There is a sense, however, in which social democracy cannot simply be confined to the socialist tradition, it was associated with a clear desire to ‘humanize’ capitalism through state intervention. Since the 1980s, however, linked to what has been called ‘new’ social democracy, a further process of revisionism has taken place within social democracy.

New’ social democracy (sometimes called ‘neo-revisionism’ or the ‘third way’) is a term that refers to a variety of attempts by social-democratic parties, in countries ranging from Germany, Italy and the Netherlands to the UK and New Zealand.
The first of these is the belief that socialism, at least in the form of ‘top-down’ state intervention, is dead: there is no alternative to what Clause 4 of the UK Labour Party’s constitution, rewritten in 1995, refers to as ‘a dynamic market economy’With this goes a general acceptance of globalization and the belief that capitalism has mutated into a ‘knowledge economy.’y. In this light, the state came to be seen not as a vehicle for wholesale social restructuring, but as a means of promoting international competitiveness; particularly by building up education and skills

Neorevisionist politicians typically endorse welfare reform. They reject both the neoliberal emphasis on ‘standing on your own two feet’ and the ‘traditional’ social-democratic commitment to ‘cradle to grave’ welfare in favour of an essentially modern liberal belief in ‘helping people to help themselves,’ government provision in terms of benefits or education is conditional on individuals seeking work and becoming self-reliant.

Anarchism- anarchist movements were powerful in, for example, Spain, France, Russia and Mexico through to the early twentieth century. (anarchy literally means ‘without rule’).

CONTROL AND INFLUENCE
Power is generally referred to as the ability to do something and achieve desired outcome.

In politics, power is all about control and influence which are used to achieve a certain

agenda. Both terms imply manipulation but it can be manifested in different ways. Control

imposes force on someone to do something he/she does not want to do. Influence uses

persuasion.

TYPES OF POWER

1. Expert Power – based on the perception that the leader possesses some special

knowledge, skills, or talents and expertise.

2. Referent Power – based on the follower’s liking, admiring, or identifying with the leader.

3. Reward Power – based on the leader’s capacity to mediate rewards for the followers.

4. Legitimate Power – based on the follower’s perception that the leader has the legitimate

right or authority to exercise control or influence over him

5. Coercive Power – based on the follower’s fear that non-compliance with leader’s wishes

or commands will lead to punishment.

SOURCES OF POWER

1. Authority – It is the right to enforce obedience without question and it exists without the

imposition of sanctions. Authority usually has legal bases.

2. Human resources – It refers to the number of persons who willingly render obedience and

cooperation to someone.

3. Skills, knowledge, and talents – Someone assumes power because he/she is believed to

have expertise on something or has special abilities.

4. Psychological factors – It refers to habits and attitudes toward obedience and submission,

usually given voluntarily.

5. Material resources – The degree to which a person controls property, natural resources,

financial resources, the economic system, the means of communication, and transportation.

6. Sanctions – The punishments for not rendering obedience.

AUTHORITY- is power recognized as legitimate (legal) which is why the government can enforce obedience without question. It is significant to note, however, that the legitimacy of someone’s power may not be always come from the laws, it can come from other sources.

TYPES OF AUTHORITY:

1. Traditional Authority - Authority is based on acceptance of and high regard of traditions

and customs. This is why religious figures or leaders are respected and obeyed. Monarchies are

examples of this type.

2. Rational-legal Authority - Authority is based on established law. People obey the leader

because they accept his/her power under the law.

3. Charismatic Authority - Authority is based on personal characteristics of a leader, whose

qualities are considered to be exceptional.

4. Coercive Authority - Authority is based on the use of force such as police or military force to

demand obedience from the subordinate.
STATE- It is a political/legal group; refers to a community of persons more or less numerous,

permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own

and enjoying freedom from external control.

Four elements of State:
1. People- Also known as population or inhabitants. There is no definite number of people set for a state. However, constitutional scholars state that the people should have the following

characteristics for it to become a state.

2. Territory- Refers to the portion of earth occupied and inhabited by the people. It should be permanent and specific in its dimension. Hence, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was created to define the rights and responsibilities of countries over their

Territories.
a.Components of Territory:

1 Aerial Domain – Refers to air space above the land and the waters

2 Terrestrial Domain – Refers to fixed portion of the land over which the jurisdiction of

the state extends.

3 Fluvial and Maritime Domain – Refers to bodies of water within, between, and around

the lands.

b. Ways of Acquiring Territory
1 Discovery and occupation – oldest method of acquiring territory; intentional

acquisition of the territory which is not owned by any state.

2 Prescription – continued occupation by state of a territory over a long period of time;

there is no standard year for prescription but scholars argue that prescription should

last for 50 years.

3 Subjugation and annexation – acquiring territory by the use of force; it is manifested

in conquest or colonization. Conquered territories are annexed by the conquerors to his/

her state.

4 Cession - transfer of territory usually by treaty from one state to another; it may also

be in the form of exchange of territory, or in the form gift or donation or devise.

5 Accretion – adding portions of territory through human labor or natural activity

(avulsion).

3. Government

A mechanism of the state, through which the will of the people is expressed, formulated,

and carried out; it is the “working arm” of the state.

4. Sovereignty

The ability of the state to self-rule or to govern itself and is free from any foreign control.

a. Types of Sovereignty:

1 Internal Sovereignty (Domestic) – ability to enforce rules and policies within its

territory or jurisdiction.

.2 External Sovereignty (International) – also known as independence, it is the freedom

of the state from external control.

b. Elements of Sovereignty:

1 Dominium – The ability of the state to own and acquire lands and resources within

its territory.

2 Imperium – The ability of the state to enforce its will on the people.

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE

1. Divine Origin Theory – The oldest theory of the state; believes that the state was God’s

creation and the leaders of the state (such as the kings) were appointed by God. It is the

basis of the divine rights of the monarchs.

2. Force Theory – Asserts that the state was a product of continuous warfare and conquest;

the conquerors become the leaders while the conquered become the subordinates.

3. Evolution Theory – Believes that the state came from families that group into bigger

groups of people such as tribes and community.

4. Social Contract Theory – Stipulates that the state is create as a result of man’s entering

into a contract which lessens his freedom and privileges and in return will provide the man

of what he needs.

INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE

Police Power- The power of promoting the public welfare by restraining and regulating the use of both liberty and property of all the people. Is considered to be the most all-encompassing of the three powers. Police power can be exercised only by the government and is justified by the philosophy of these maxims.

a. Salus populi suprema lex – the welfare of the people is the supreme law.

b. Sic utere ut alienum non laedas – use your property in such a manner as not to injure that

of another.

Presence of private property – the power of eminent domain concerns the things owned by

individuals and not by the state.

Power of eminent domain- The power of taking property, upon payment of just compensation, for conversion of such property to public use or purpose. It may be exercised by the government and some private persons or corporations who are authorized to exercise functions of public character.
Can be exercised under the following conditions:
1. 1Necessity of taking – the taking of the private property must be justified by the purpose of

public use or utility.

2 Having just compensation – the property taken from its owner must be paid with fair and adequate equivalent.

Power of Taxation- The power to impose tax on individuals and properties to support the government. Tax refers to a compulsory contribution that will be used for public expenditure.
Tax- is the lifeblood of the government, without tax, the government cannot perform its functions. The degree of tax depends on the state.
3 general features:
a. Uniform Taxation – persons belonging to the same class shall be taxed at the same rate.

b. Equitable Taxation – tax burden must be imposed according to the taxpayers’ capacity.

c. Progressive Taxation – as the resources of the taxpayer becomes higher, his rates likewise

increase.

NATION- As described in the earlier lessons, nation is a cultural entity; a large group of people bound together by common culture, language, history, and descent.
The following elements make up a nation:

1. Shared Similarities -These similarities may be demographic characteristics such as

language, descent, and religion, or may be common culture or historical experiences.

2. Feeling of Community -People in a group perceive that their shared similarities bind

them together into one unified entity. This makes the people still connected even though

they were dispersed into the different areas or regions of the earth. An example of this is

the OFWs.

Nationalism- Ethnocentric
                    -Aggressive(hostile to enemies)
                    -Does not tolerate criticism and justifies shortcomings
                    -Resorts to rivalry and resentment

Patriotism- relativist
                - passive (peace seeking)
                -acknowledges the flaws and attempts to correct mistakes
                -believes in friendly relations

Similarities: Sentimental feeling or attachment to homeland, Love for one’s own country: Does not tolerate imperialism/colonization.

POLYSTATE NATION AND MULTINATIONAL STATE

The Arab Nation is not a state but a nation which consists of several states, such as Saudi

Arabia, Yemen, Egypt, Sudan, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. On the

other hand, the United States of America is a state and not a nation but it consists of several

nations such as Caucasian, African, Chinese, and Indian nations.

NATION-STATE- It is the integration of the state and the nation. Therefore, a nation-state would exist if nearly all the members of a single nation were organized in a single state. As an entity, its strength relies on the fusion of both the cultural and political aspects. Most of the modern countries we have today are nation-states since it is easier to govern a state with people having a homogenous culture and race. Many multinational states are born out of colonization or conquest.

GLOBALIZATION- It refers to global interconnectedness; a process through which societies have become so intertwined or interconnected that events and decisions in one part of the world have significant effects on the lives of people in the other parts of the world.

DIMENSIONS OF GLOBALIZATION- Interconnectedness of countries and states has different faces or manifestations: 

1. Economic Globalization- All economies have been integrated in a global community where there are fewer economic barriers, and more capital flowing freely between countries. Example: International production, financial capital flowing freely between countries
2. Cultural Globalization- Implies an increased cultural interconnectedness across the globe, principally as a result of the mass media, leading to similar life patterns in different parts of the globe. Example: Kpop fever, use of Facebook,

3. Political Globalization- Nation-states recognize the importance of international organizations. These organizations, such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, etc., influence domestic issues. Example: Influence on domestic issues of organizations such as the United Nations.

TIMELINE OF THE POLITICAL GOVERNMENT 

PRECOLONIAL:

• Patriarchal government style

• People lived in settlements called barangays, which came from the Malay word balangai, meaning “Boat,” and were led by the Datu

  • Elders assisted & advised the datu’s on any important matters (such as implementing laws)

  • People paid tribute to the datu in exchange for protection, resembling the early social contract theory

SOCIAL CLASSES:

• Lakan or Rajah- ruling class

• Maharlika- middle class; commoners

• Alipin- Slaves

Types of Slaves:

1.) Namamahay- Slaves that had their own quarters/houses were usually built on the property of their masters.

2.) Sagigilid- Lived in their master's house, or usually homeless.

Centuries before the colonization of the Spaniards, the Philippines had already established international relations. They traded with China, Japan, and Southeast Asian Kingdoms, fostering diplomatic relationships and cultural exchange (documented by Antonio Pigafetta).

Early settlers, aka the Negritos & Austronesians introduced irrigation systems and rice cultivation. These settlers organized themselves into the Barangays led by a Datu.

• Datuship was initially hereditary but later based on their resources and abilities.

Islam later introduced Sultranates in the 13th century, integrating Islamic laws. Later the Spanish conquest in the 16th century dismantled native governance, except for the Mindanao Sultanates.

SPANISH COLONIZATION:

• Was a time full of religious influence

  • Catholicism was introduced and became the dominant religion here.

• The Philippines became a colony of Spain under the Viceroyalty of New Spain (New Mexico)

• The government was highly centralized, led by the Governor-General appointed by the Spanish King, aka King Philip II of Spain

• Local governance was through the encomienda system, where Spanish Officials (Encomenderos) collected taxes and tributes from the natives.

Laws During the Spanish Period:

• Siete Partidas: A Spanish Law written in the 13th Century

Partidas I- deals with canon laws

Partidas II- with peerage laws 

Partidas III- with procedural law & administration of justice

Partidas IV- with civil law

Partidas V- with commercial law

Partidas VI- with succession & estate law, duties of knights, soldiers, noble titles and property rights

Partidas VII- with criminal laws

Arrival of the Spaniards(1521):

• The Philippines was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan, but his expedition failed after he was killed in a Battle of Mactan by Lapu-Lapu.

Establishments:

• Miguel López de Legazpi successfully established the first Spanish settlement in Cebu, marking the beginning of Spanish Rule (1565)

• The Spanish government later moved to Manila, which later became the capital(1571)

  • Manila serves as a commercial hub and strategic base for the Spanish Empire in Asia.

Ecomienda System(1850s)

• They allowed conquistadores(soldiers/officials) to collect any tribute, such as gold, food, and cloth, from the indigenous people for exchange for protection.

ABANDONED DUE:

• Abusive treatment of local tributary payers(overtaxing and forced labor)

• Neglect of religious instructions by encomenderos

Spanish Administrative Structure(late 16th- early 17th Century)

• The Philippines was divided into provinces governed by alcaldes, mayors.

End of Hereditary Gobernadorcillos Positions(1789)

• Their roles later become non-hereditary, causing power struggles between the old and emerging sectors.

Mestizo and Native Influence(late 18th- early 19th Century)

• Mestizos and Native elites started to gain influence, although power largely remained with the Spanish. 

The Rise of Propaganda Movement(1872)

• The Gomburza execution (1872) ignited Filipino Nationalism.

• Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jeana led the movement

• Used La Solidaridad to demand reforms, equal rights, and representation

  • Graciano Lopez Jaena is the founder of  La Solidaridad

• Advocated for assimilation, but inspired the Katipunan & the 1896 revolution

  • The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, is a secret revolutionary society founded in 1892 by Filipino nationalists. Its goal was to overthrow Spanish rule and establish an independent Philippines. The

End of the Spanish Period (1898)

• After 333 years, Emilio Aguinaldo, the first president of the Philippines, declared independence from Spain and soon established the First Philippine Republic.

• The Malolos Constitution was created. (1899) It established the Philippine Republic and outlined its political structure and rights. 

Revolutionary Period (1868-1898)- During the second half of the 19th century, the nationalist

sentiments of the Filipinos awakened. The Propaganda Movement, key figures such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena, advocated reforms such that the same rights and freedoms being enjoyed in Spain would also be granted to the Filipinos. They wrote novels, manifestos, and articles that called for reforms. However the failure of the Propaganda to initiate changes we society gave birth to a secret association, the Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Katipunan). Founded in 1892 by Andres Bonifacio and a group of patriots. The Katipunan sought independence from Spain and set the 1696 Revolution in motion. As an organization, the Katipunan adopted its own form of

government, which had national and local levels. The Katipunan was governed by the Kataastaasang Sanggunian (Supreme Council), which was composed of the president, secretary/secretaries, treasurer, and fiscal. The Sangguniang Balangay (Provincial Council) and the Sangguniang Bayan (Popular Council) was also organized in each province and town, respectively. A Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council) was also created to adjudicate on cases involving members of the organization. Events, however, led to the division of the Katipunan into two factions: the Magdalo and Magdiwang. The Spaniards were about to intake an offensive in Cavite and a unified leadership was deemed necessary. On 22 March 1897, the Tejeros Convention was called, where Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as president. On 1 November 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak-na-Bato Republic. Its constitution declared the creation of an independent Philippine state. The republic, however, lasted for only a month after the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed.

It provided for the amnesty and monetary indemnity of Aguinaldo and other revolutionaries, including the exile of the revolutionary government to Hong Kong. The impact was supposed to signal the end of the revolution, but Aguinaldo and his men purchased more arms and ammunition to prepare themselves for another siege. By April 1898, the Spanish-American war broke out. Aguinaldo sailed for Cavite from Hong Kong and by 24 May, he established a dictatorial government. It was under this dictatorial government that the Philippine independence from Spain was declared on 12 June in Kawit, Cavite. Soon after, the dictatorial government was replaced by a revolutionary government. In 1898, months after the declaration of independence, the Malolos Congress which produced

the Malolos Constitution. On 23 January 1899, the First Philippine Republic was established

with Emilio Aguinaldo as its president. A Supreme Court of Justice was likewise created,

which addressed cases. However, the outbreak of the Filipino-American War suspended the

activities of these institutions. In 1901, Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by American forces,

leading to the dissolution of the First Philippine Republic.

American Period (1898-1941)

The signing of the Treaty of Paris signaled the end of the Spanish-American War. The

treaty involved United States' payment of $20 million to Spain after the latter ceded all its imperial possessions, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The American

occupation of the Philippines definitely precipitated the Philippine-American War.

Following the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo and the defeat of revolutionary forces, the official end of hostilities was declared in 1902. Regardless of this, individual uprisings all over the archipelago still persisted,

making the Philippine-American War one of the longest wars the United States has ever

been to.

In 1898, after America's capture of Manila, the United States forces established a military

government in the Philippines. It was led by a military governor, who exercised all powers

of the government. The military governor administered the Philippines through the

authority of the US President, who was also the Commander in Chief of the US Armed

Forces. The military governors were Gen. Wesley Merritt (1898), Gen. Elwell Otis (1898–

1900), and Maj. Gen.Arthur MacArthur, Jr. (1900-1901). The Spooner Amendment

eventually ended the military regime. A civilian governor replaced the military governor.

The Americans established the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands under the

authority of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, a division which oversaw the civil affairs of some

US foreign territories. What ensued thereafter was the establishment of governmental

structures that would later on affect or shape the course of Philippine politics.

William H. Taft (in office 1901-1904) became the first civil governor of the Philippines. The

civil governor acted as the head of the executive branch and also exercised legislative

powers as the head of the Philippine Commission, a lawmaking body, whose members were

all appointed. In 1902, the Philippine Organic Act (Cooper Act) was enacted, which

provided for the creation of a Philippine legislature. The legislature would be bicameral,

with the all-appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house; and the Philippine

Assembly, whose members were to be elected, as the lower house. In 1907, the first

nationwide election was held and the Philippine legislature held its first session. By 1916,

the Philippine Autonomy Act (Jones Law) provided for the reorganization of the Philippine

legislature into a fully elected and Filipino-controlled bicameral body. The Philippine

Commission became the Senate, while the Philippine Assembly became the House of

Representatives.

Meanwhile, Filipino statesmen were already working toward total Philippine independence

from the United States. Until in 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence

Act) was ratified by the US Congress. It established the Philippine Commonwealth, which

provided for a 10-year transition period that would prepare the Filipinos for self-

governance. The 1935 Constitution was promulgated, which paved the way for a

presidential and unicameral legislative system called the National Assembly of the

Philippines. The legislature was later restored to bicameral after an amendment in the

Commonwealth Constitution. An independent judiciary was also established, with judicial

power vested in a supreme court and such other inferior courts as provided by law.

President Manuel Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña headed the first

Commonwealth government.

The Commonwealth government went in exile when the Japanese occupied the Philippines

from 1942–1945. The influence of the American occupation on the structure of government

of the country is very evident. The democratic political institutions established, including

electoral and party politics, constitutional law, the secret ballot, and the legislature, are

manifestations of the strong influence the Americans had on our current political system.

Similarly, our belief in the democratic ideals that guide governance of the country is by

itself an American influence. As Teehankee (2002) noted, colonialism became the defining

force in the emergence of democracy in the Philippine nation-state.

Japanese Occupation (1941-1945) Japanese Occupation The Japanese occupation of Manila signaled the establishment of the Japanese Military Administration on 3 January 1942. It consequently led to the interruption of American rule in the Philippines. As an initial move, the Japanese military forces established the Philippine Executive Commission (PEC), a civil

government that would temporary rule the country. It was composed of Filipinos, with Jorge B. Vargas as its chairman. While this commission exercised executive and legislative powers, everything was subject to approval by the commander in chief of the Japanese forces. In 1943, a new

constitution was promulgated and the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic was

established. Jose P. Laurel served as its president. Also called the Second Republic, its

executive, legislative, and judiciary structures were similar to those of the PEC. While

Filipinos assumed government positions, the Japanese apparently influenced how the

country would be administered. Thus, the Second Republic is commonly referred to as a

"puppet" government.

Soon after the return of Gen. Douglas Mc Arthur eventual defeat of the Japanese forces, the

1935 Constitution again became the highest law of the land in 1944 and the Commonwealth government was reestablished. Meanwhile, Manila suffered as the second most devastated city after the Second World War, next to the city of Warsaw in Poland. By July 1945, MacArthur announced the liberation of the Philippines. The reestablishment of the government under Osmeña saw enormous problems: devastation by war, destruction of the economy, political warfare, and guerilla violence. Thus, the primary problem during this period was the reconstruction of the country and of the government.

Postwar Era or the Third Republic of the Philippines

(1946- 1971)

As mentioned earlier, the Tydings-McDuffie Act granted independence 10-years transitional

period. This happened on 4 July 1946, despite Philippines was still rising up from the ashes

brought by the war. The Third Structure of postwar Philippine politics and government was

founded on the 1935. The said constitution provided for a presidential and unitary system,

wherein the president will be directly elected by the people and will serve for four years

with a maximum of two terms. There was also a bicameral legislature composed of the

Senate and the House of Representatives, whose members are also directly elected by the

people. An independent judicial body-composed of the Supreme Court and the lower courts

—was also created. Philippine politics and government were democratic in a sense that

they provided for the separation of powers and a system of checks and balances among the

three branches of the government. Electoral and party politics also characterized pre- and postwar periods. The first president of the Third Republic was Manuel Roxas (in office 1946–1948), followed by Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953), Ramon Magsaysay (1953–1957), Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961), Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965), and the first term of Ferdinand Marcos (1965- 1969). Marcos's

second term saw changes in the governmental structure and the ratification of a new

constitution in 1973. Martial Law era (1972-1981) and the Fourth Republic (1981-1986)

In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected to the presidency and his administration was characterized by an increased agricultural productivity, massive infrastructure development, and a defining diplomatic policy. In 1969, he ran for reelection and succeeded, making him the only president under the 1935 Constitution to be elected for a second term.That time, however, the country was undergoing worsening economic condition, deteriorating peace and order, social

discontent, and a growing Communist insurgency.

To "save" the Republic from this turmoil, on 23 September 1972, Marcos, put the country

under martial law. The declaration was made through the virtue of Proclamation

nationwide radio and television that he was placing the 1001 which was signed on 21

September. Marcos rationalized that martial law was the only option that would solve the

rebellion which posed a threat to the peace and order of the country. He then instituted the

Bagong Lipunan (New Society), which envisioned a thriving and self-reliant society that is

based on new social and political values.

Under Marcos's administration, a new constitution was adopted in 1973. The 1973

Constitution provided that the Philippines will have a modified parliamentary form of

government. The president will serve as a ceremonial head of state, with the following

functions: address the National Assembly at the opening of its regular section; proclaim the

election of prime minister; dissolve the National Assembly and call for a general election;

appoint all officers and employees in accordance with the Civil Service Law, among others

(Article VII, Section 6). On the other hand, the prime minister will be the head of the cabinet

(Article IX, Section 1), be responsible to the National Assembly for the program of

government approved by the president and determine the guidelines of national policy

(Section 2), and be the commander in chief of all armed forces in the Philippines (Section

12), among others. The president and the prime minister were to be elected by the National

Assembly, a unicameral legislative body composed of assemblymen elected by the people.

The third item in the 1976 amendments allowed Marcos to be the president and the prime

minister at the same time. He shall "continue to exercise all his powers even after the

interim Batasang Pambansa is organized and ready to discharge its functions. Likewise, he

shall continue to exercise his powers and prerogatives under the 1935 Constitution and the

powers vested on the President and the Prime Minister under this Constitution." Ultimately,

Marcos's legislative powers were solidified as the sixth item allowed him to “issue the

necessary decrees, orders, or letters of instructions, which shall form part of the law of the

land" if the interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular National Assembly fails to address

matters deemed requiring immediate action by the president-prime minister. In 1981, the

constitution was again amended. With these changes in the government structure, Marcos

was able to stay in the presidency longer and exercise greater powers.

During martial law, the political rights and civil liberties of the people as well as their human rights were suppressed and violated. The suspension of the writ of habeas corpus led to the arrest and detention of any person without proper court proceeding. There were also cases of human rights abuses among those who were vocal against the regime. Press freedom was also violated as Marcos established control of mass media. Through Letter of Instruction No. 1, Marcos ordered the closure of media establishments in the country. He also used his power to seize companies and industries and to place them under the control of his trusted supporters and relatives, instituting what came to be known as crony capitalism. While Marcos already lifted martial law by 1981, he continued to exercise dictatorial powers. Calls to end his dictatorial regime brought Filipinos to take to the streets to participate in a popular and nonviolent uprising called the EDSA People Power, which ousted Marcos and ended his dictatorial rule.

Post-EDSA Period or the Fifth Republic (1986–present)

The period from 1986 onward is the restoration of democracy. The fall of the dictatorship

marked the shift toward democratization and return to constitutionalism. A revolutionary

government was created following Corazon Aquino's ascent to presidency. A Freedom

Constitution was also framed, which served as the foundation of the transitory government.

When a new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, a democratic and republican government was established. The 1987 Constitution featured aspects that reflected those

of the 1935 Constitution, albeit several changes. The post-EDSA era, also known as the Fifth Republic, saw the revival of democracy, wherein governmental powers emanate from

the people. Elections, political parties, and civil societies were thus re-instituted. Civilian authority (through

the president) was recognized supreme over the military. An independent judiciary was also reestablished. The Philippine legislature also returned to a bicameral form, with the rebirth of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Corazon Aquino (in office 1986-1992) served as the first president of the Fifth Republic. She was followed by Fidel Ramos (1992–1998) and Joseph Estrada, who only served half of his term (1998–2001) after being deposed by the EDSA People Power II. Estrada was succeeded by his vice president, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, who eventually won the 2004 presidential election and thus served as executive for almost a decade (2001-2010). She was followed by Benigno Simeon Aquino III (2010–2016), son of former president Corazon Aquino. Today, the Philippines is headed by Rodrigo Duterte, the first president to have hailed from Mindanao.

PREAMBLE

We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society, and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.
ISSUES

  Impeachment of Vice President Sara Duterte: In December 2024, four impeachment complaints were filed against Vice President Sara Duterte, accusing her of culpable violation of the Constitution, betrayal of public trust, graft and corruption, and other high crimes. The House of Representatives approved the impeachment on February 5, 2025, making her the first Philippine vice president to be impeached. The case is pending trial in the Senate.
Withdrawal of Senatorial Candidates: On January 14, 2025, former Ilocos Sur Governor Chavit Singson withdrew from the Senate race. The same day, the Supreme Court issued temporary restraining orders preventing the Commission on Elections (COMELEC) from excluding certain candidates, including Subair Mustapha. Following Singson's withdrawal, the COMELEC removed his name from the ballot. On January 21, the Supreme Court issued further injunctions, including adding Francis Leo Marcos to the ballot; Marcos withdrew on January 23. Wilbert T. Lee withdrew on February 10 due to lack of political machinery, and Willie Ong withdrew on February 13, citing health reasons.
Debate Over the Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Bill: In January 2025, the National Coalition for the Family and the Constitution (NCFC) launched Project Dalisay, opposing the proposed Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Bill. The NCFC claimed the bill promoted inappropriate content, such as teaching young children about masturbation. President Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. initially supported the bill but later retracted, labeling it as promoting a "woke mentality" and threatening a veto. Several senators and congressmen withdrew their support, citing concerns over the bill's content and process. UN representatives and child rights groups refuted the NCFC's claims, emphasizing that the bill adhered to international standards and was tailored to the Philippine context.
Potential International Criminal Court (ICC) Arrest Warrant for Former President Rodrigo Duterte: In March 2025, former President Rodrigo Duterte visited Hong Kong, sparking speculation about evading a potential ICC arrest warrant related to his anti-drug campaign. Duterte expressed readiness to face arrest if issued, justifying his actions as efforts for national peace and safety. The Philippine government stated it had not received official communication from Interpol but was prepared to comply with legal procedures if a warrant was issued.

Accountability of Public Officers and Investigations (Blue Ribbon Committee): Senator Pia Cayetano
Accounts: Senator Alan Peter Cayetano
Agriculture, Food, and Agrarian Reform: Senator Cynthia Villar
Banks, Financial Institutions, and Currencies: Senator Mark Villar
Basic Education: Senator Win Gatchalian
Civil Service, Government Reorganization, and Professional Regulation: Senator Bong Revilla
Constitutional Amendments and Revision of Codes: Senator Robinhood Padilla
Cooperatives: Senator Imee Marcos
Cultural Communities and Muslim Affairs: Senator Robinhood Padilla
Culture and the Arts: Senator Loren Legarda
Economic Affairs: Senator Migz Zubiri
Electoral Reforms and People's Participation: Senator Imee Marcos
Energy: Senator Pia Cayetano
Environment, Natural Resources, and Climate Change: Senator Cynthia Villar
Ethics and Privileges: Senator Francis Tolentino
Finance: Senator Grace Poe
Foreign Relations: Senator Imee Marcos
Games and Amusement: Senator Lito Lapid
Government Corporations and Public Enterprises: Senator Mark Villar
Health and Demography: Senator Bong Go

Higher, Technical, and Vocational Education: Senator Alan Peter Cayetano
Justice and Human Rights: Senator Aquilino "Koko" Pimentel III
Labor, Employment, and Human Resources Development: Senator Joel Villanueva
Local Government: Senator JV Ejercito
Migrant Workers: Senator Raffy Tulfo
National Defense and Security, Peace, Unification, and Reconciliation: Senator Jinggoy Estrada
Public Information and Mass Media: Senator Robinhood Padilla
Public Order and Dangerous Drugs: Senator Ronald "Bato" Dela Rosa
Public Services: Senator Raffy Tulfo
Public Works: Senator Bong Revilla
Rules: Senator Francis Tolentino
Science and Technology: Senator Alan Peter Cayetano
Social Justice, Welfare, and Rural Development: Senator Imee Marcos
Sports: Senator Bong Go
Sustainable Development Goals, Innovation, and Futures Thinking: Senator Nancy Binay
Tourism: Senator Lito Lapid
Trade, Commerce, and Entrepreneurship: Senator Alan Peter Cayetano
Urban Planning, Housing, and Resettlement: Senator Imee Marcos
Ways and Means: Senator Win Gatchalian
Women, Children, Family Relations, and Gender Equality: Senator Risa Hontiveros
Youth: Senator Bong Go