Indigenous Art and Architecture Notes Review
Indigenous Americas (153–166)
Chavín de Huántar (complex, Lanzón, nose ornament)
Location: Northern highlands, Peru
Culture: Chavín
Date: 900–200 BCE
Material: Stone; hammered gold alloys
Form:
U-shaped temple plan
Labyrinthine galleries
Central granite Lanzón stele featuring contour rivalry
High-relief and low-relief interplay
Content:
Fanged deity (therianthropic)
Hallucinogenic references through motifs of San Pedro cactus
Function/Context:
Served as a pilgrimage oracle
Manipulation of sound and light to awe initiates
Traps:
Do not refer to it as Inka (it is pre-Inka)
Comparison:
Lanzón’s role as axis mundi compared to Intihuatana at Machu Picchu, which anchors solar and ritual time.
Mesa Verde cliff dwellings
Location: Montezuma County, Colorado
Culture: Ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi)
Date: 450–1300 CE
Material: Sandstone
Form:
Kivas (circular and subterranean)
Post-and-beam roofs
Coursed sandstone blocks
Content:
Domestic and ritual spaces with a sipapu opening (a ceremonial portal)
Function/Context:
Community and ritual habitation with a defensive site to accommodate seasonal movement
Traps:
Kiva ≠ granary (understand vocabulary)
Comparison:
Cliff siting versus ridgeline engineering in Machu Picchu.
Yaxchilán (Structures 33, 40) + (Lintels 24/25/26)
Culture: Maya
Date: 725 CE
Material: Limestone
Form:
Corbel vaults and roof combs
Narrative lintel reliefs, particularly depicting Lady Xoc’s bloodletting
Content:
Vision serpent appearing in reliefs; royal legitimation through ritual sacrifice
Function/Context:
Architectural propaganda for the Shield Jaguar II dynasty
Traps:
Emphasize the importance of royal women in political continuity
Comparison:
Contrast elite bloodletting here with state sacrifice imagery at Templo Mayor.
Great Serpent Mound
Location: Adams County, Ohio
Culture: Mississippian (Eastern Woodlands)
Date: c. 1070 CE
Material: Earthwork
Form:
Effigy mound, elongated and unembanked earth structure measuring 1,254 feet long
Content:
Depicts a serpent swallowing an egg; the meanings and alignments related to solstices and astral associations are debated
Function/Context:
Part of a ritual and ceremonial landscape; not intended as a burial mound
Traps:
Refer to it as Mississippian, specifically not as Hopewell unless dated otherwise
Comparison:
Monumentality of earthworks contrasted with the megalithic masonry of Saqsaywaman.
Templo Mayor (plus Coyolxauhqui, Calendar Stone, Olmec mask)
Culture: Mexica (Aztec)
Date: 1375–1520 CE
Material: Stone
Form:
Twin pyramids, one dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (war and sun) and the other to Tlaloc (rain)
Content:
Includes the Coyolxauhqui disk (a representation of the dismembered moon goddess) situated at the base of the stairway, along with sacrificial narratives and cosmic cycle representations through the Sun Stone, and an Olmec jade mask found in a cache
Function/Context:
Acts as an axis mundi staging state ideology and sacrificial practices
Traps:
Ensure correct linking of deities: Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc designated to south and north respectively
Comparison:
Power displayed through state spectacle versus personal prestige exemplified in the Ruler’s feather headdress.
Ruler’s feather headdress (potentially belonging to Motecuhzoma II)
Culture: Mexica
Date: 1428–1520 CE
Material: Quetzal/cotinga feathers, gold
Form:
Luxurious feather mosaic comprising iridescent quetzal plumes
Content:
Symbolizes regal identity with cosmic bird imagery
Function/Context:
Used as a courtly gift or for diplomacy while representing status and sacred connotations
Traps:
Consider it featherwork (specifically not textile weaving)
Comparison:
Comparison of prestige expressed through textile versus encoded rank in the All-T’oqapu Tunic.
City of Cusco (Qorikancha; Saqsaywaman)
Culture: Inka
Date: c. 1440 CE
Material: Ashlar masonry
Form:
Radial city plan with finely dressed ashlar and trapezoidal openings; the Qorikancha temple was later crowned by the structure of Santo Domingo
Content:
Often referred to as the Sun temple illustrating imperial order radiating from the Inka control
Function/Context:
Acts as the political and theological center, evident Spanish appropriation is noticeable
Traps:
Note the significance of ashlar masonry (vocabulary)
Comparison:
Contrasts dry-fitted stone with coursed granite of Great Zimbabwe.
Maize cobs
Culture: Inka
Date: c. 1400–1533 CE
Material: Sheet metal/repoussé in gold/silver alloys
Form:
Naturalistic representation of metal maize ears embedded in a ritual garden, showcasing mimetic splendor
Content:
Symbolizes agricultural abundance indicative of imperial power
Function/Context:
Offered as items in the Qorikancha/Temple of the Sun
Traps:
Not considered jewelry; they are classified as cult objects
Comparison:
The contrast between courtly metalwork and feather prestige akin to the Ruler’s feather headdress.
Machu Picchu (including Intihuatana, Observatory)
Culture: Inka
Date: 1450–1540 CE
Material: Granite
Form:
Features terracing, ashlar stonework, and intentional sightlines; Intihuatana, a carved outcrop acts as a solar marker
Content:
A royal estate with ritual astronomy implications
Function/Context:
Functioned as an elite retreat for the Inka nobility; functions as political theater and plays a significant role within the landscape
Traps:
It should not be termed a “lost city” as it was specifically for elite use and context
Comparison:
Differences in landscape integration compared to cliff siting in other cultures, notably seen at Mesa Verde.
All-T’oqapu Tunic
Culture: Inka
Date: 1450–1540 CE
Material: Composed of camelid fibers and cotton
Form:
Dense grid of t’oqapu motif squares, showcasing elite weaving methods; fabric woven using a backstrap loom (specific vocabulary)
Content:
Emblems representing various ethnic/provincial units asserting the emperor’s totalizing authority
Function/Context:
A status garment illustrating imperial semiotics and power
Traps:
Must avoid calling it “kente” which refers to Asante textiles from Africa
Comparison:
Consider the differences between the encoded status signified here versus the named patterns found in Kente cloth.
Bandolier bag
Culture: Lenape (Delaware)
Date: c. 1850 CE
Material: Beadwork constructed on leather
Form:
Adorned with glass-bead floral abstractions, featuring a large strap and pouch, which is often nonfunctional
Content:
Comprises cross-cultural materials demonstrating European beads incorporated within Native designs
Function/Context:
Signifies male prestige and identity within the community
Traps:
Associated geographically with the Eastern Woodlands, specifically different from Plains.
Comparison:
Portable identity tied here, in contrast with fixed mnemonic qualities of Lukasa from Africa.
Transformation mask
Culture: Kwakwaka’wakw
Date: Late 19th century
Material: Wood, feathers, string
Form:
Hinged design allowing reveal of inner face/spirit as the mask opens; activated by performance
Content:
Signifies animal-human transformation; used within winter ceremonial contexts
Function/Context:
Integral to the potlatch performance and reflects kin/crest identity display
Traps:
It’s important to know the mechanism enabling the mask’s opening
Comparison:
The power of performance employed here compared to the judicial power represented in Nkisi n’kondi from Africa.
Painted elk hide (Sun Dance)
Attributed Artist: Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody), Eastern Shoshone
Date: c. 1890–1900
Material: Painted elk hide
Form:
Portable artwork featuring painted narratives with contour figures
Content:
Represents Sun Dance (which was banned) and the Wolf Dance; that hybridizes tourist with ethnographic market influences
Function/Context:
Rooted cultural persistence amidst suppression.
Traps:
Not classified as “ledger drawings” since it uses a different visual medium
Comparison:
Examines narrative portability in contrast to fixed stone narratives as seen in Yaxchilán.
Black-on-black ceramic vessel
Artists: Maria Martínez and Julian, San Ildefonso Pueblo
Date: c. 1939
Material: Blackware
Form:
Matte-on-shiny black designs created through a reduction firing technique; vessel is coil-built with a polished slip (technical vocabulary)
Content:
Reimagined ancestral forms catered for a modern market
Function/Context:
Initiates a cultural revival complemented by economic sustainability
Traps:
Technique of reduction firing produces color rather than pigment application
Comparison:
Contrast ceramic surface technology here with the metal surface mimicry seen in maize cobs.
Africa (167–180)
Conical Tower and Circular Wall of Great Zimbabwe
Culture: Shona (Zimbabwe)
Date: c. 1000–1400 CE
Material: Coursed granite, dry masonry
Form:
Characterized by a massive elliptical wall and a conical tower constructed without mortar
Content:
Symbolizes royal granary and connects sustenance to authority
Function/Context:
Denotes trade power through resources such as gold and ivory; functions as a royal enclosure
Traps:
Not constructed by foreign influences; underscores indigenous engineering
Comparison:
Differentiate dry stone building methods to Inka precision in ashlar masonry seen prior.
Mosque Djenne
Culture: African (Mali)
Date: Established 13th century (reconstructed in 1907)
Material: Adobe, wooden beams
Form:
African-style architecture characterized by a large format, incorporating elements like mud and palm wood
Content:
A primarily Islamic center of spiritual and community life
Function/Context:
Acts as a mosque and gathering place for communal prayer
Comparison:
Consider local influence on architecture and cultural expression compared with other traditions.
Wall plaque from Oba’s Palace
Culture: Edo peoples (Benin, Nigeria)
Date: c. 16th century
Material: Brass (lost-wax method)
Form:
High-relief brass panel showcasing hierarchical scale; oba (king) depicted larger than others; illustrates court processions
Content:
Highlights oba’s divine kingship and includes motifs from Portuguese trade
Function/Context:
Serves as a historical record displayed at the palace on wooden posts
Traps:
Note the provenance issues due to the 1897 British Punitive Expedition that dispersed these works
Comparison:
Examination of courtly brass histories juxtaposing tactile memory found in Lukasa from the Luba.
Sika dwa kofi (Golden Stool)
Culture: Asante (Ghana)
Date: Foundation in 1700
Material: Gold over a wooden frame
Form:
Curved seat supported by bells, never allowed to touch the ground
Content:
Represents the national soul (sunsum) of the Asante people; believed to descend from the sky reflecting matrilineal polity
Function/Context:
A symbol of political and spiritual sovereignty
Traps:
Designates that it is not meant for sitting; holds only symbolic significance
Comparison:
Connection to political sovereignty versus the personal shrine quality found in Ikenga (Igbo).
Ndop (portrait figure) of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul
Culture: Kuba (Democratic Republic of Congo)
Date: 1760–80
Material: Wood
Form:
Idealized depiction of a king with cross-legged stance; contains ibol (personal emblem) that identifies the ruler; motif includes a “peace knife”
Content:
Not an exact likeness; instead symbolizes ideals adorned with royal regalia
Function/Context:
Safeguards the king's spirit and legacy preserved within a shrine
Traps:
Be sure to identify features like the ibol; avoid referring to it as funerary
Comparison:
Comparison of idealized kingship demonstrated in this Ndop versus portrait ideals shown in Mblo (Baule).
Power figure (Nkisi n’kondi)
Culture: Kongo (DRC)
Date: c. late 19th century
Material: Wood, metal, bilongo
Form:
Characterized by pegs and nails inserted to “activate” the figure, with a cavity that holds bilongo (medicinal materials)
Content:
Serves as a spiritual pact involving oath-taking and justice
Function/Context:
Utilized for dispute resolution, protection, and healing
Traps:
Nails represent contracts rather than simply decorative elements
Comparison:
Activated power here compared against the performance activation of the Transformation mask.
Female (Pwo) mask
Culture: Chokwe (DRC)
Date: Late 19th to early 20th century
Material: Wood, fiber, pigment
Form:
Characterized by ideal female features, scarification patterns, and a fine coiffure; typically danced by men
Content:
Celebrates ideals of fertility and ancestral honor within community contexts
Function/Context:
Used during male initiation ceremonies for social continuity
Traps:
Important to note the gender dynamics; performed by males for the female ideal
Comparison:
Contrast of the Pwo mask's ancestor ideal with Mblo's focus on living admired individuals.
Portrait mask (Mblo)
Culture: Baule (Côte d’Ivoire)
Date: Early 20th century
Material: Wood, pigment, brass
Form:
Features balanced facial characteristics, glossy patina, projecting modesty and restraint
Content:
Celebrates an admired individual, often one who is living
Function/Context:
Featured in Gbagba dance performances conveying social praise
Traps:
Important distinction that portrait does not equal naturalistic likeness; idealization is pivotal
Comparison:
Differences between individual weaved praise versus collective memory depicted in Lukasa.
Bundu/Sowei mask
Culture: Mende (Sierra Leone/Liberia)
Date: 19th-20th century
Material: Wood, raffia
Form:
Glossy black surface representing water ripples through a ringed neck; has downcast eyes; worn by women, which is quite rare
Content:
Represents a water spirit (Sowei) symbolizing female beauty and morality ideals
Function/Context:
Used within the Sande Society for the initiation of girls
Traps:
Mark this as the only African mask traditionally worn by women
Comparison:
Performance authority compared with male performances in the Pwo masks.
Ikenga (shrine figure)
Culture: Igbo (Nigeria)
Date: 19th-20th century
Material: Wood
Form:
Features a horned head signifying vitality with a “right-hand” power for personal altars
Content:
Represents acha (personal power/achievement) and chi (ancestral force)
Function/Context:
Marks status and success and is used for oath-taking
Traps:
Understand that it serves as a private shrine, not a mask
Comparison:
Distinctions of personal agency contrasted with the national soul symbolized in the Golden Stool.
Lukasa (memory board)
Culture: Luba (DRC)
Date: 19th-20th century
Material: Wood, beads, metal
Form:
Hand-held board distinguished by tactile bead patterns, read by “men of memory”
Content:
Encodes dynastic histories, charters, and migrations onto a physical medium
Function/Context:
Serves political memory and performative recitation purposes
Traps:
Classify as a mnemonic device, not decorative
Comparison:
Differences in archival memory versus historical records found in palace plaques (168).
Aka (elephant) mask
Culture: Bamileke (Cameroon)
Date: 20th century
Material: Cloth, beads, raffia
Form:
Beaded face featuring a long trunk and geometric panel designs, traditionally danced by the Kuosi society
Content:
The elephant symbolizes wealth and power, often associated with Fon (king) patronage
Function/Context:
Used during palace festivals as part of elite masquerade events
Traps:
Recognize the political economy associated with the beads representing costly imports denoting status
Comparison:
Analyze costume spectacle in relation to the static throne symbols such as the Golden Stool.
Reliquary figure (byeri)
Culture: Fang (Gabon)
Date: 19th-20th century
Material: Wood
Form:
Features an elongated oval head with compact limbs, seated atop a bark container of bones; designed for nomadic lifestyles
Content:
Guardianship for ancestors, balancing serenity and potential energy
Function/Context:
Protects relics while functioning as a portable shrine
Traps:
Reference as a reliquary guardian instead of a portrait representation
Comparison:
Examines contrasts between ancestral housing and mnemonic encoding methods present in Lukasa.
Veranda post of enthroned king and senior wife
Artist: Olowe of Ise
Culture: Yoruba (Nigeria)
Date: 1910–14 (circa)
Material: Wood
Form:
Displays stacked, dynamic figures that utilize negative space; characterized by intricate carving techniques reflecting ojuona design consciousness
Content:
The senior wife represents stability of power while the horseman signifies martial prowess
Function/Context:
Functions both as architectural support and as royal propaganda
Traps:
Credit Olowe for the intricate design, noting that the column serves both structural and symbolic purposes.