AP WORLD HISTORY REVIEW GUIDE

AP WORLD HISTORY EXAM STUDY GUIDE

PERIOD 1 (unit 1 and 2)

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750 TO 1258: MIDDLE EAST

At the beginning of various empires, the most likely thing to occur or begin was religion, in the 700s, Dar Al Islam was being developed in the Abbasid Caliphate

• The Abbasid Caliphate was an Islamic kingdom, which was ethnically Arabic, and actually— an empire, by which its capital was in Baghdad (modern Iraq).

• The Abbasid caliphate was mainly built surrounding trade, it focused primarily on it, and due to this, it used a billing system— similar to modern-day bills.

• The Abbasid caliphate fell to the rising Turkish and Arabic empires— one being the Turkish Seljuk empire.

• Dar al islam seems like a type of religion, but don't be mistaken! Dar al islam is actually regions across the globe where islam is the dominant religion practiced.

950 TO 1279: CHINA

During the Song dynasty era, Confucianism was widely practiced in various regions of China and other communities in Asia.

• The song dynasty maintained its rule by emphasizing Neo-Confucianism which was basically a revival of Confucianism from the Tang dynasty (prior to Song) and expanding their bureaucracy.

• Confucianism is a philosophical belief that emphasizes morality and social relationships while also focusing on justice, sincerity, family, respect, and virtue.

  • Neo-Confucianism is relatively similar, but with differing concepts such as emphasis on hierarchy and filial piety while also trying to rid the influence of Buddhism. 

    • Filial piety is the practice of honoring ancestors and placing the lowest importance on the daughter in-law.

• the song dynasty developed economically through various technological innovations, such being;

  • Champa rice (rice that is grown in a fast pace)

  • Grand canal expansion

  • trade (silkroad)

• during the song dynasty era, many women were facing legal restrictions and social limitations; if a woman were to marry out of poverty, it was expected of her to participate in foot binding, which is when young girls break their feet in a way so they continue to grow in a small shape, footbinding was really common during the song dynasty era, but since, its been made illegal so various purposes.

• China was also in its period of expanding its imperial bureaucracy; this occurred through merit-based bureaucratic jobs, in order to maintain loyalty.

  • A bureaucracy is a system of governance or management where decisions are made by state officials or administrators rather than elected representatives.

    • Was selected through the civil service exams—which was open to all men but limited because only rich men could devote their time to study.

1095 TO 1291: WESTERN EUROPE

During the 1000’s, Pope Urban had called the crusades.

• The crusades were military campaigns by European Christian’s to convert Muslims and other non-Christian; they were also in order to recapture Jerusalem.

1206 TO 1526: INDIA

The Delhi sultanate was working to spread islam across the globe, mainly in Southeast Asia.

• During the spread of islam, the Rajput kingdom resisted Muslim intrusion, trying to maintain its Hindu influence, by which it succeeded.

• The Delhi sultanate is a series of Muslim dynasties, they typically worked to spread islam throughout the globe in the 13th century. The Delhi sultanate was the precursor to the Mughal empire.

1206 TO 1227: MONGOLIA

Before Genghis Khan, he was known as Temujiin, but he gained the name of Genghis khan after he established the Mongol empire in 1206.

• Genghis Khan established the Mongol empire by unifying Mongolia, this was in order to expand their authority over other territories and societies.

• the mongols cause the following:

  • Diffusion of culture.

  • prevent Russia from developing culturally.

  • enable world trade.

  • spread global awareness 

• The Mongols were ruthless, they killed multitudes of people and they were incredible fighters. Throughout their reign they daughter in organized and mobile fashions.

• The mongols also impacted trade throughout Eurasia, the Silk Roads had an impact on the mongol empire and which they eventually sought to control

  • The silk roads were established by the Han dynasty in China and they were used for trade throughout Eurasia for various centuries.

• During the Mongols' rule, they also succeeded in overthrowing and destroying Baghdad which led to the fall of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.

1279 TO 1368

In 1279 the Mongols overthrew the dynasty ruling China, and established the Yuan dynasty; the first foreign ruled dynasty to command all of china.

1299 TO 1923

As the Mongol rule came to an end in Eurasia, the Ottoman Empire began to emerge, starting off with Oman Bey.

• The ottomans ruled over various Turkish societies and Islamic societies, they had solidified their rule from Greece all the way to Persia.

• The ottomans adopted gunpowder weapons in order to expand, this also meant for the emerging canon weaponry to be used throughout their expansion.

• the ottomans had a system for their army, peasant boys or boys from rural town were put into the devshirme; an institution where enslaved Christian’s and peasant were forced to convert to islam and taught how to fight to become janissaries (ottoman military fighters).

1324: MALI

In 1324 Mansa Musa made his pilgrimage to Mecca.

• Mansa Musa was Muslim emperor in Mali who established Islamic schools and mosques throughout his empire, during his reign Mali had controlled a vast majority of the trans-Saharan trade routes and African gold resources.

• Mansa Musa's pilgrimage introduces the wealth of Mali to the rest of the Mediterranean .

1325: LATIN AMERICA

In 1325 the city of Tenochtitlán was founded, this started the capital of the Aztec empires in Latin America; various markets had been established which led to the Aztecs commercialization.

1325 TO 1354; MIDDLE EAST

In 1325, Ibn Battuta had started his vast travels across dar al islam, and enabled various trade routes across dar al islam; Ibn Battuta’s travels enabled his readers to understand various cultures across the globe and allowed for more open-minded thinking.

1346 TO 1388

In the 1300’s, new diseases started to emerge, one known as the Black Death, but also called the bubonic plague.

• The Black Death was coined for its name due to its rapid spread and how it killed millions.

  • It mainly spread through the following trade routes:

    • Silk roads

    • indian ocean trade

• It emerged in Northern China and spread rapidly across Eurasia.

  • In the Middle East it killed nearly ⅓rd of the population.

  • in Europe killed ½ of the population.

• During the times of the Black Death many people associated it with the devil’s work— due to this, many of the doctors wore demon-like masks in order to repel such devils.

1368 TO 1644: CHINA

After the decline of the Mongol rule in China through the yuan dynasty, a new dynasty emerged, known as the Ming dynasty.

• The Ming dynasty was a dynasty ruled through the Han people of China, an ethnic majority.

• The Ming dynasty established peace and order throughout China and expanded their borders with gunpowder.

1405 TO 1433: CHINA 

During the Ming dynasty era, a former eunuch who served for the Ming emperor of china, named Zheng He, went on various voyages across the globe. Zheng He explored the Indian Ocean and enrolled multitudes of states in China’s tributary system.

• A eunuch was a castrated servant who served for others throughout the Chinese dynasties. They were castrated in order to prevent a royal daughter or royal female family member from courting a peasant.

1428 TO 1521: LATIN AMERICA

Throughout the Aztec empire, sacrifice was very common for rituals or simple hopes. The Aztecs went through various technological advancements and had increased their trade with neighboring societies throughout the Americas’.

• Tenochtitlán was the capital city during the Aztec empire, and is nowadays considered modern day Mexico City.

• The Aztecs had expansionists policies and professional strict armies.

• The Aztecs were also known as the Mexica (where modern day Mexico and Mexicans get their nationality).

• the Aztecs. Needed to secure their legitimacy as rulers in Latin America, therefore they claimed their heritage from older and more renowned Mesoamerican people.

1438 TO 1533: LATIN AMERICA

In the 1440’s, the Incan empire started to emerge in Latin America.

• Inca rulers had expansionist ideals, they had armies, bureaucracy, a unified language, and various systems of roads and tunnels.

  • The Incan roads were a series of roads stretching north to south throughout the Americas, where various runners would deliver and trade various items.

• The Inca had a system of labor—the Mit’a System; the Mit’a system required labor of everyone in a society for a period of time each year to work on state projects (basically—if you want to live here, work for it, help build our empire).

1440: AFRO-EURASIA

In 1440, Swahili state-buildings started to flourish.

In 1440, the printing press was invented.

• The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg.

• The printing press was originally made in various individual blocks that had to be placed individually to create each word— but the printing press made books easily producible and affordable, which led to widespread learning of literature and increased literacy rates around afro-eurasia.

Before the 1440’s—in the 1400s, the caravel was invented in Europe.

1441: oh no……

In 1441, the trans Atlantic slave trade started, mutitudes of ens;aged people’s were transported across the Atlantic Ocean to other countries in need of hard labor.

• The trans-Atlantic slave trade transported around 10-12 million enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean, various dying on the way there.

• the conditions of the trans-Atlantic slave trade were brutal, the ships being so packed that some would die even from the comapactivity of the boat.

  • Many deaths were also due to the spread of disease—migrants from Europe were introducing Africans to various substances that led to multitudes of deaths.

PERIOD 1 SUMMARY: THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW

A state is territory that is politically organized under one government.

The Chinese in period 1 are in their Song dynasty era by which they maintained and justified their rule by 2 main methods.

• The emphasis of neo-confucianism

  • Neo-Confucianism focused on filial piety (necessity of honoring their elders/anyone above them), this also stripped legal and social rights of women, an example for this is foot binding, which acted as a status symbol among the elite, and wanted to rid the influence of Buddhism and that the nature of society is hierarchical. Neo-Confucianism also focuses on worshipping the rule of the emperor.

  • Expansion of the imperial bureaucracy, which is a government arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor. People who were a part of the bureaucracy had to take the civil service exam which was open to everyone but typically only taken by people who had time = rich.

• The Song dynasty influenced their Chinese traditions in Korea, Vietnam, but not japan.

• Buddhism in China spread long before the Song dynasty, and originated from india.

  • Buddhism focused on the four noble truths:

    • Life is suffering

    • We suffer because we crave

    • We stop suffering when we stop craving

    • How to stop suffering and craving by living a moral life

  • Buddhism shared traits with Hinduism:

    • The cycle of birth and death (reincarnation)

    • Ultimate goal: dissolving into the state of the universe known as nirvana.

  • Buddhism changed as it spread into new regions: 

    • Theravada: Buddhism was only for monks by which the monk’s destiny was to gain enlightenment.

    • Mahayana: Buddhism was for anyone and typically sought out by people who were already enlightened and who wanted to help others become enlightened.

• The economy of the Song dynasty was inherited by the previous Tang and Sui dynasties, but increased their economy drastically. The population doubles.

  • The Song dynasty commercialized the economy, which basically meant that manufactures and artisans began to produce more goods than they consumed, and those excess goods were traded with other regions thus resulting in the Song dynasty’s economic boom.

    • Porcelain and silk.

  • Agricultural innovation allowed for more crops/food to be produced which evidently resulted in the Song dynasty’s population doubling over time.

    • Champe rice:

      • Grew fast

      • was able to be harvested multiple times per year

      • resisted drought

  • innovations in transportation facilitated more trade and transportation throughout the Song dynasty era.

    • The grand canal

Dar al islam refers to all the areas in the world where islam is the main faith, but there are different types of religions within dar al islam which are the following;

• Judaism was an ethnic religion of the Jewish population and focused on the teachings of the Torah and rest of the Hebrew bible.

• Christianity was established by the Jewish prophet Jesus Christ.

• Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad, who claimed to be the final prophet reaching all the way back from Adam and other Abrahamic prophets. Islam focused on salvation through righteous actions such as prayer and fasting.

Each abrahamic religion was known to be monotheistic, which means they believed in multiple gods. These religions shaped their societies and cultures in their regions by which they were practiced.

The Abbasid caliphate was located in what is now known as Baghdad, and the Abbasid caliphate was ethnically Arabic. The Abbasid caliphate started to break apart in the center of the Muslim world and one important fact to know why the Abbasid caliphate started to crumble was due to the fact that the majority of the citizens living within the Abbasid caliphate were ethnically Turkish, therefore the new major ethnic empire were ran by Turks instead of Arabs. 

• The Seljuk empire was established by the turkish Seljuks by which was established in the 11th century; the Abbasid caliphate was in need of assistance in maintaining their rule among the majority Turkish people, thus calling the Seljuks for help, which led to the Seljuks taking over the Abbasid caliphate thus leading to its relative demise. 

  • But the Seljuks did not entirely wipe the Abbasid out, the Abbasid were entirely flushed away by the Mongols that conquered in 1258. 

So the overall main idea of dar al islam is that the dominance of Arab Muslim empires was slowly but quickly fading as the Turkic Muslim empires arose to replace them.

• But through the change of the Arab to Turkic empire, they didn't change as much, thus leading to continuity in some areas.

  • The Turkic Muslim empire continued to administer their states by military command.

  • The Turkic Muslim empire continued the establishment of sharia law across their empire.

    • The sharia is a legal law based on the Quran.

• While continuity was present, change also appeared when Turkic Muslim empires arose.

  • Scientific/mathematical advancements were made by Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi, who invented trigonometry.

  • muslim scholars started to conserve Greek moral and natural philosophies from ancient luminaries by Plato and Aristotle.

    • Typically done in the House Of Wisdom.

muslim rule expanded through various means:

• Military expansion

  • Ex: Seljuk Turks through the Abbasid caliphate.

• muslim merchants

  • Trade routes allowed for the diffusion of commodities/goods, which also allowed for merchants to diffuse their culture and religion wherever they traded.

• muslim missionaries.

  • Trade routes also allowed for the diffusion of cultures and religions, while merchants were traveling for mainly trade, missionaries were there to convert people, which eventually led to the spread of islam contributing to the expansion of Muslim rule.

In south and Southeast Asia belief systems were present through, specifically 3:

• Islam.

• Buddhism.

• Hinduism.

• In South Asia, Buddhism was born here, but it had been in decline for various years; so Buddhists in South Asia were reduced to monastic communities in the north. Therefore, Hinduism was the most practiced belief system in South Asia, with islam following behind; because Muslims ruled large parts of South Asia, islam became the religion of the elite by which then spread out through Southeast Asia as well.

  • The Bhakti movement was an innovation on traditional polytheistic Hinduism in India but emphasized the devotion to just one of the Hindu gods instead of multiple. This version of Hinduism became a much more attractive version to more Hindus due to its simplicity.

    • The Bhakti movement also enforced challenges to social and gender hierarchies that the original form of Hinduism persisted in keeping.

• In Southeast Asia it was mainly Buddhism and islam that were racing with one another.

state building was also different across the regions of south and Southeast Asia.

• In South Asia, the Delhi sultanate had ruled most of South Asia but had a difficult time holding on to their rule and imposing such rule on the majority of the Hindu population.

  • The rajput kingdoms resisted Muslim conversion due to being a majority of a Hindu population; the rajput kingdom was a collection of rival kingdoms by which all were Hindu but were able to work collectively together to keep Muslim conversion at bay and prevent conversion.

  • The Vijayanagara empire arose during the period of Muslim conversion occurring in the north as a counterpoint due to its upstanding Hinduism faith. This empire arose due to the Delhi sultanate failing to extend Muslim rule and losing a part of the empire thus causing the emergence of a new empire.

• in Southeast Asia various diverse sea and land based empires that named themselves off of their interactions with neighboring empires/dynasties.

  • One sea based empire is the Majapahit kingdom, which was a Buddhist kingdom and surprisingly one of the most powerful southeast Asian kingdoms for its time due to its controlling of sea routes for trade; the kingdom of Majapahit began to decline when china started t support its trading rival, the sultanate of malacca.

  • One land based empire in Southeast Asia was the Khmer empire which was founded as a Hindu kingdom but eventually converted to Buddhism.

    • One unique characteristic of the Khmer empire was that before converting to Buddhism it had a structural element that served Hinduism known as the Angkor wat, by which later had added on Buddhist elements after the empire's conversion.

While other parts of the world are being influenced by each other, groups in the Americas only have each other, but that doesn’t stop them from uniquely state building.

• In Mesoamérica there is the Aztec empire, founded by the Mexican people. The capital city was Tenochtitlán and was the largest city before the Europeans arrived.

• The Aztecs administered their empire in elaborate ways:

  • The Aztecs created elaborate systems of tributary, which were the people who they conquered meant that they had their own jobs in coordinating certain resources for the Aztecs.

  • Enslaved people by the Aztecs played large important roles in the religion of the Aztecs, acting as the candidates for human sacrifice along with the sacrifices of animals such as guinea pigs 😢

• in the Andean civilization there was the inca empire.

  • The inca empire stretched from north to south along the Latin American continent. The Incan empire was somewhat similar to the Aztecs in ways such as using older languages from previous native societies. 

  • To maintain power, the Incas were incredibly intrusive than the Aztecs; the Incas had elaborate bureaucracies in order to maintain power throughout the empire—rigid hierarchical officials were spread out throughout the empire in order to keep the conquered people in check. 

  • The Incas had adopted the Mit’a system; which required all people under Incan rule to provide labor on state projects like agriculture, obtaining resources, construction, etc. 

In North America there were different native societies that operated quite differently from the societies in Latin america. 

• The Mississippians were the first large scale culture in North America, and they grew around the Mississippi river due to the soil being extremely fertile, thus focusing on agriculture.

  • In the Mississippian power structure, large towns had tendencies to dominate smaller satellite settlements politically.

State building in Africa looked a little different from other regions around the globe but also tended to follow the same timeline of state building and other developments.

• In east Africa, the Swahili civilization was a series of cities organized around trading areas along the East African coast.

  • Each city was politically independent but had common social hierarchy where merchants were elites put above commoners. 

  • The Swahili civilization was deeply influenced by Muslim traders, causing an emergence of languages, known as Swahili. 

    • Swahili was a mix of African Bantu language and Arabic (which was used as the alphabet and script); this hybrid language shows the importance of intermingling and cooperation of cultures.

  • Because of Muslim influence, the Swahili states became an Islamic community by which increased integration into Islamic world trade.

• in west Africa there were various centralized civilizations such as Ghana, Songhai, and Mali; all of these civilization’s growth was driven by trade which caused these civilizations to become Muslim and so on.

  • It was mainly elite members of these societies who converted to islam while the rest of the majority of the civilization remained intact with their indigenous beliefs and traditions.

• in Southern Africa there was the Great Zimbabwe by which later became a very powerful state with amazing structures throughout its region.

  • One factor of Great Zimbabwe that contributed to its uniqueness is how it never converted to islam and remained devoted to its indigenous shamanistic religion.

• in Northern Africa, the state of Ethiopia flourished along with its neighboring kingdoms along the Arabian peninsula.

  • One major feature that sets Ethiopia far from the other African states is that its major religion was actually Christianity, but similar in hierarchical structures of a monarch holding the highest power. 

All the way back in europe was developing religious views of Christianity, but instead of just one type of Christianity there were 2 types:

• Eastern Orthodox

  • In the Byzantine empire there was Eastern Orthodox, but due to the Byzantine empire's upcoming downfall, the empire of Kieran rus arose and began to uplift and, in a way, revive Eastern Orthodox. Which brought together majorities of Eastern Europe. And allowed for more introductions of various trading networks.

• Roman Catholicism 

  • Western Europe was split into various decentralized states after the fall of the Roman Empire; but because of Roman Catholicism, all of the states were linked together. The Roman Catholic Church also spread the church’s influence across politics and cultures across europe.

European states had no large empires unlike the rest of the world, instead decentralization and political fragmentation was very common; therefore the main social, political, and economic system of Europe was centered around feudalism.

• Feudalism is a system by which allegiances between powerful lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings, the lesser lords and kings were commonly referred to as vassals and they received land from their lords in exchange for military service.

• smaller parts of Europe were underneath manorialism, which is when a piece of land owned by a lord is then rented to peasants who worked on the land, also known as serfs (this practice is also known as serfdom).

All of the states and regions we just reviewed are connected by networks of exchange, the main 3 being the silk roads, Indian Ocean trade route, and the trans-Saharan trade route. The geographical scale increased of each of these trade routes which also caused an increase of what was being traded through such trade routes; these trade routes evidently lead to an increased connectivity of all placed due to various states participating in trade routes for having the same goal of wanting to become wealthy and powerful; which they did become due to their access to these 3 trading networks. Increased inter connectivity caused the rise of powerful trading cities and the collapse of others.

• The silk roads stretched across Eurasia and mainly luxury goods were traded throughout. 

  • The most important things to note about the commodities traded on this trading route was Chinese silk and porcelain.

  • The reason why merchants made the commodities on the Silk Road luxury goods is due to how long and difficult it was to get from Eastern Asia to Europe.

  • The increased value of the commodities traded throughout the silk roads led to an increase in demand which cased an increase in production of such goods mainly by Chinese, Indian, and Persians.

  • The innovations of the silk roads included transportation technologies for traveling such as caravanserais, which were series of Inns or guest houses that commonly appeared throughout the Silk Road that provided safety for the merchants traveling around the world.

    • The caravanserai caused merchants throughout the globe to come together which caused the transfer of culture or technology.

  • Another innovation of the silk roads was the expansion of commercial practices, which meant buying and selling things became easier.

    • Money economies emerged as one of the commercial practices; money economies included using paper money to facilitate exchange, unlike the barter economy that used goods as a currency.

      • This allowed for merchants to withdraw money from different parts of the globe, thus making handling money a lot easier. This practice was called the flying money system.

    • Introductions of new forms of credit allowed for the introduction of a banking system; similar to a check.

  • The increase of trade caused by innovations and the networks of the Silk Road caused the rise of powerful trading cities that grew and flourished due to their location along such routes. 

    • Kashgar was built around a river and it grew through the expansion of the silk roads and the merchants that came traveling through.

• The Indian Ocean trading network expanded significantly throughout 1200-1450. 

  • The understanding of the monsoon winds was necessary to be able to navigate and trade to be able to travel among the Indian Ocean trading routes. 

    • The Indian Ocean merchants understood over time that the ocean’s winds blew in certain directions in certain times.

  • a large bulk of what wasn’t being traded along the silk roads was traded throughout the Indian Ocean trading networks.

    • This includes more common goods such as textiles and spices.

  • the Indian Ocean trading network was able to expand due to technological innovations and innovations of commercial practices.

    • The technological innovations such as the magnetic compass allowed for merchants to know what direction to sail towards and the Astro blade allowed for merchants/sailers to measure the stars and compare them to star charts in order to know what the longitude and lattitude was. the last being new ship designs such as the Chinese junk, which were massive and allowed for enormous cargo holds.

    • similar to the silk roads, commercial innovation practices included various forms of credit.

  • the effects of of the Indian Ocean trades expansion caused the growth of states; for example the Swahili city-states became powerful due to acting as brokers for goods originating from the African interior such as gold, ivory, enslaved people, etc. the expansion of the Indian Ocean trading networks also led to diasporic communities which were settlements of ethnic people in a location other tha their homeland; thus causing mingling of cultures and by which fostered the growth of more cities such as the Swahili-city states. New languages emerged due to the expansion of the Indian Ocean trade.

    • Cultural diffusion was also fostered by Zeng He whom was a Chinese eunuch who traveled throughout the globe to enrole states in chinas tributary system, his traveling caused the diffusion of technologies originating from china to be spread and shared throughout the Indian Ocean basin. 

• The trans-Saharan trading network in Africa expanded significantly due to trasnportation innovations.

  • The main transportation technological innovation to note about Thr trans-Saharan trade network was the camel saddle; the camel saddle allowed for transporting larger loads of cargo across Africa, this led to the increasing wealth and power of various states. 

    • The empire of Mali prospered through the merchants traveling throughout  the trans-Saharan trading network due to Mali taxing them from trading inside of the state.

The effects of all of these trading networks falls into  categories:

The mongol empire facilitated trade throughout the world due to their massive empire.

• The mongols established the biggest empire of all time and caused various other empires to fall to them; their region were ruled in the states of the Khans known as the khanates.

• the mongols increased networks of exchange drastically; the mongols allowed for safety and continuity throughout the silk roads and wanted more trade to occur due to their profit along the trading routes. The mongols also coordinated communication throughout their empire for trade to become easier.

• the mongols facilitated various transfers of technological and cultural exchanges; the technological transfers created conditions of transfers of Greek and Islamic medical knowledge to Western Europe. The cultural transfer allowed for the mongols to adopt a written language and spoken language that originated from previous Islamic languages.

Period 1, Review Questions.

1. What were the main impacts of the collapse of classical civilizations on the rise of new societies?

2. How did religion influence social and political structures of major world religions?

Religions such as islam and Buddhism caused empires to shift how they did things politically and socially into implementing their religion upon their subjects and sometimes causing uprisings, for example, islam and Hinduism in Muslim empires.

3. What were the main tenets of Buddhism and how did it spread across Asia?

Life is suffering, we suffer because we crave, we cease suffering when we cease craving, in order to cease suffering and craving you must live a moral life.

4. What are the key differences between Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism?

Theravada Buddhism solely focused on Buddhist monks obtaining enlightenment without assisting others who sought enlightenment, while Mahayana Buddhism allowed for anyone to seek enlightenment.

5. What role did Dar Al Islam play during the golden age between 750-1258 CE?

Dar al islam showed cultural differences that were relatively similar but unique in their own ways; kingdoms in dar al islam facilitated trading networks along the silk roads and the Indian Ocean basin, allowing for those kingdoms to profit off of merchants going through such trade routes.

6. How did the feudal system in Europe shape society during the Middle Ages?

The feudal system allowed for states throughout Europe to be interconnected due to their relations as lords. Giving land in exchange for military assistance allowed for bonds to be formed between the decentralized European states.

7. What were the main trade networks established during the Middle Ages, and how did they facilitate exchange of goods?

The main trading networks were the silk roads; facilitated goods via animal saddles, the Indian Ocean trading network; facilitated trade though large cargo ships (Chinese junks), and the trans-Saharan trading network; facilitated trade via camel saddles.

8. Fill out the chart.

PERIOD 2 (unit 3 and 4)

1453: MIDDLE EAST

In the year of 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople through warfare, specifically cannonry and military. 

• Ottomans close in on Constantinople around the barricades and cannon them to knock them down, then wreak havoc on Constantinople—therefore conquering it.

1450s TO 1480s: RUSSIA

After being under mongol rule for various decades, Russia finally breaks free from their rule, and starts their own state building.

1464 TO 1591: MIDDLE EAST

In the empires of Dar Al Islam, the Songhai empire began to thrive and prosper, while uplifting islam throughout its society.

1469: SOUTH ASIA

In 1469, a new religion emerged, Sikhism.

• The religion of Sikhism held onto significant doctrines of both Islam and Hinduism.

• People who practiced Sikhism believed in only one form of god, which set itself apart from the other religions, which were polytheistic (believing in more than one god).

• Sikhism rejected the caste system, which was widely influencing india.

  • The caste system was a social hierarchical system in India that divided individuals into separate groups of duty or basic living.

1491: SPAIN

In 1491, Spain completed the reconquista.

• The reconquista was a form of riding certain religions from an area in order to assert Christianity or the leading religion among said area.

• The reconquista was aiming to rid the Iberian peninsula of Muslim rule and re-established Christianity to be the official religion of the region.

1491: COLUMBUS

In 1491, Columbus began his voyages to the “New World”.

• Columbus had been trying to find the West Indies, which he had never found—due to him taking a different route, but because of taking a different route it led to the discovery of the Americas.

  • The discovery of the Americas sets the stage for period 2, marking it as the start of global network exchanges but particularly with the Americas. This leads to the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the beginning of the Columbian exchange.

    • The columbian exchange was an exchange of resources and goods between afro-Eurasia and the Americas, the Americas introduced various resources to the eastern continents along with new animals and plants, but the eastern continents introduced death to the Americas— causing mass disease that leads to almost every Native American to die.

1497: PORTUGAL

In 1497, Portuguese colonizers too started to discover the Americas, this led to the race of colonization between Spain and Portugal.

• In 1498, Vasco Da Gama reached India and started more colonization and trade for resources.

1501 TO 1722: MIDDLE EAST

In 1501, the Safavid empire emerged as the largest Shi’a empire.

• The safavid’s empire being Shi’a had led to the armed conflict between the Sunni of the Ottoman Empire. 

1535: AMERICAS

In 1535, the first enslaved Africans reached the Americas to serve the Spanish and Portuguese for labor in gathering resources.

1517: EUROPE

In 1517, the Protestant Reformation began.

• The Protestant reformation was a movement that aimed to address the reform issues with the Roman Catholic Church.

• The Protestant reformation was mainly led by Martin Luther; he challenged practices of the Roman Catholic Churches and created the 95 theses.

  • The 95 theses were Martin Luther’s criticisms and propositions for debate of the Roman Catholic Churches practices and calling for reform.

    • The churches selling of indulgences and forgiveness of sins.

    • The salvation that people could give to Jesus instead of paying the church.

    • The questioning of the authority of the pope.

    • True repentance.

    • Seeking inner faith rather than external practices.

1526 TO 1748: MIDDLE EAST

In 1526, the Mughal empire started to arise, bringing about Sufism and the bhakti movement.

• The key rulers to know about the Mughal empire are Akbar and Aurangzeb.

  • Akbar was a ruler who tolerated and supported the arts of religious freedom.

  • Aurangzeb was a ruler who did not allow religious freedom and persecuted Hindus and Sikhs.

• The end of the Mughal empire was in the hands of the ruler Bahadur Shah 2, after he was sent to exile.

1550 TO 1700: EUROPE

In the 1550s, scientists started to discover more and more about the world, this is when the scientific revolution came about; the scientific revolution was basically about significant advancements in discovery—it was the emergence of science. 

• More critical thinking of scientists came about, it challenged long held ideas of Aristotle and the church and promoted the reason why to look for evidence of basic understanding of religions and how they came about (basically debunking them).

  • Astronomy.

  • Biology.               )— ADVANCEMENTS CAREERS

  • Physics.

1552: RUSSIA

In 1552, the Russian empire emerged, most notably, Ivan The Terrible ruled as the first Tsar of Russia; he wanted to centralize his authority and wanted to expand Russia even further.

1595: EUROPE

In 1595, the invention of the fluyt came into play. The fluyt is a type of boat that made for heavy hauling and played a significant role in Europe's shipping tonnage.

1600: BRITAIN

In 1600, the first British East India company was established.

• The British East India company was a trading corporation led by English merchants which granted exclusive rights to trade in the East Indies—this led to controlling of trading routes and other commodities on said trade routes.

1600 TO 1868: JAPAN

While every other continent around the world is developing with the influence and help of one another, Japan is isolated and solely dependent on themselves—Japan is in its Tokugawa era.

• Tokugawa Japan was under strict governmental control that instituted rigid social classes among the region.

• Tokugawa Japan was facing an extremist national seclusion policy that prohibited ANY outside influence—which is also the reason why Japan's culture is flourishing with uniqueness that sets it apart from other cultures across the globe.

1602: DUTCH

Shortly after the British established the British east india company, the Dutch decided to follow relatively close behind; the establishment of the Dutch east india company was set in 1602 which was basically the same set up as the the british’s.

1643 TO 1715: FRANCE

King Louis XIV began his absolute monarchy in France at the beginning of the 1640s.

1688 TO 1911: CHINA

After the ethnically Chinese Ming rule in China, the Qing dynasty emerged to govern China.

• The Qing were a foreign power that asserted their governance in China in the 1680s.

• The Qing were from Manchuria and had started their Manchu empire with the start of conquering China.

• The Qings’ divided China based on ethnicity, isolating the Hans and the Manchus from one another and punishing them if any intentionally or not influenced the other.

1689 TO 1725: RUSSIA

Peter the Great began to modernize Russia in order to catch up with the other Eurasian countries.

1715 TO 1789: GLOBAL

In the beginning of 1715, new ideologies began to emerge, starting off with the enlightenment.

• The enlightenment was the idea of popular sovereignty for all people.

• The enlightenment brought about various revolutions and expansions for human suffrage, it also led to the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom. One major key point to remember about the enlightenment is that 1, it didn't always mean independence and, 2, it led to the great revolution of women suffrage.

  • Serfdom was a type of servantry/slavery that required a peasant to work for a landowner. they were required to live on the landowners estates, they had personal rights but were legally bonded to the land and couldn’t leave without the landowners permission. It was common in Russia.

PERIOD 2 SUMMARY: THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW

A land-based empire is an empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial land holdings. In the time period 1450-1750, land-based empires were expanding. The main 4 land-based empire you have to know were the:

• Ottomans: 

  • The ottomans were originally small but were able to expand due to the adoption of gunpowder weapons which originated in china but spread through networks of exchange. Gunpowder weapons allowed for the ottomans to control much of south Western Europe which also includes the conquering of Constantinople by which the ottomans renamed it Istanbul. 

    • Constantinople was so important because it was once the beloved holding of the Roman Empire; once the ottomans conquered it, it allowed them to have greater access to the remainder of Eastern Europe.

  • As the ottomans expanded into Europe it allowed them to conquer people, specifically Christians; by which were captured by the ottomans, put into the devshirme in order to become janissaries.

    • Janissaries were the soldiers within the military.

• Safavids:

  • The Safavids were founded in the Middle East and expanded with the help of the emperor, Shah Ismail who led military campaigns to conquer neighboring territory; they also expanded with the help of gunpowder weapons similar to the ottomans.

  • Due to the Safavid empire being in an open territory that was vulnerable to attacks, the next emperor Shah Abbas started to build up the Safavid military which led to the adoption of gunpowder weapons. The shah abbas also created a military of enslaved Christian’s from neighboring territories due to not wanting to fire such weaponry by themselves. 

• Mughals:

  • The location of which the Mughal empire was located was before where the Delhi sultanate was located in the last time period, but later conquered by Babur through campaigns that evidently wiped out the Delhi sultanate.

  • The Mughal empire expanded rapidly though military forces who used gunpowder weapons. 

    • The empire was later expanded even further by Babur's grandson, Akbar.

      • Though the Mughals were Muslim, Akbar had great religious tolerance for other religions within the empire, which was unusual for his time; due to this religious tolerance, the Mughals became the most prosperous empires of the 16th century.

• Qing/Manchus:

  • In the last period, the Mongol empire had conquered all of China and established the Yuan dynasty, but after the Mongols had fallen, the Ming dynasty had emerged, which was ethnically Han (Chinese); but after the Ming dynasty it was conquered by the Manchus from Manchuria, by which established the Qing dynasty.

  • The Qing dynasty expanded and grew stronger with the use of gunpowder weapons.

all 4 of these empires can be compared in the following ways:

• They were all land-based.

• They all expanded rapidly.

• They all used gunpowder to expand rapidly.

• The emperor/rulers of these empires were all ethnically different from their subjects.

  • Qing/manchus vs Hans/chinese

  • safavids/shia vs ottomans/sunni

but since all of these empires were expanding so quickly, they must’ve had conflict; and they did.

• The Safavids and the Mughals had a conflict between one another over the territory known today as Afghanistan; originally the Mughals had controlled such territory but while they were fighting somewhere else the Safavids had taken the territory for their own.

  • Another key thing about this conflict was that the Mughals were also Sunni similar to the Ottomans, while the Safavids were Shia; thus making this conflict even more deadly.

How were all of these empires administrating themselves?

• Rulers legitimized and consolidated their power by….:

  • Legitimized: what methods rulers used to establish their authority.

    • The formation of large bureaucracies.

    • development of military professionals.

    • religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture.

      • Monarchs in Europe spread religious ideology such as the divine right of kings which made monarchs out to be god’s representative on earth.

      • The emperor Kangxi hung imperial art of himself surrounded by books of Confucianism throughout china.

      • The sun temple in Latin America stood as a temple by which religious practices were carried out, showing the citizens that they were legit rulers.

    • innovations of tax collection systems.

      • The zamindar system implemented by the Mughals gave authority to tax peasants to land owners that owned land by which such rasantes lived on.

      • The tax farming system implemented by the Ottomans gave taxing rights to the highest bidder.

      • The tribute list implemented by the Aztecs was given to conquered people who had to give whatever was on the tributary list to the Aztec empire.

  • consolidated: what methods rulers used to transfer their power from other groups of themselves.

How did belief systems change and stay the same throughout empires and their regions?

• Originally, Roman Catholicism originated in Rome, and while most people followed Christianity with delight, behind the scenes the church was doing dirty work while everyone took a blind eye.

  • Simony:

    • The church ‘officials’ bought their way into the role by which they took among the people of the church in order to gain power.

  • sale of indulgences:

    • The church required people to pay money in order to be forgiven for their sins.

• A catholic monk, Martin Luther, was baffled by the doings of the church and couldn’t believe that the church had possibly misinterpreted the Bible’s teachings of salvation. 

  • In 1517, martin Luther created a list of his complaints, known as the 95 thesis, about the church and hung it on the door of the church in vidberg, by which the church was extremely displeased and considered Martin Luther to be denounced as a heretic and excommunicated him from the church. But due to the technological advancements in this time period, the printing press allowed the spread of the 95 thesis and other writings of Martin Luther across Europe; this caused more people to be on the side of Luther besides the Church, resulting in the formation of the Protestant reformation; which shows change in religion. But though the Protestant reformation was formed, the church still held the highest authority, thus also resulting in continuity.

• While Christianity was experiencing change and continuity in Europe, islam was facing political rivalries intensifying between the Sunni and Shia split.

  • In the Safavid empire, Shah Ismail declared that the empire would adhere to Shi’a islam, which put the Safavids in opposition to various other Muslim empires.

    • The decision of Shah Ismail aggravated and intensified the split between the two branches of islam. 

    • When Shah Ismail declared the Safavids being Shi’a, he carried out his declaration with violence, executing/killing any people of opposition such as Sunnis within the Safavid empire.

      • The Shah even divided the military which was developed solely to ensure that everyone in the empire was ritually and regularly cursing the first 3 caliphs who succeeded Muhammad.

• In South Asia, Sikhism was being developed, which was a blend of Hinduism and islam.

  • The continuity of Sikhism included:

    • Belief in one god.

    • Cycle of reincarnation and death.

  • The change of Sikhism included:

    • The discarded gender hierarchies of islam.

    • The discarded caste system from Hinduism.

Maritime empires in 1450-1750 started off with European exploration which was caused by the following:

• Technological adoptions and innovations:

  • Europeans weren’t in the technological advancement era, but they made their way through, adopting technologies from classical geek, Islamic, and Asian worlds. These technological advancements allowed Europeans to navigate on the seas. But not only adopting advancements from other regions, Europeans also made their own technological innovations.

    • Adoption of the magnetic compass, which originated from china.

    • Adoption of the Astro blade, which originated from Ancient Greek and Arabic worlds.

      • Allowed sailors to understand and know their latitude and longitude.

    • Adoption of the lateen sail, which originated from the Arab world.

      • Enabled sailors to take wind from either side.

    • Advancement of the caravel, which stemmed from the Portuguese.

      • Smaller than Chinese junks, which allowed them to navigate around coastal areas and sail faster.

    • European sailors also improved their understanding of wind patterns in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 

• Growth of state power:

  • European monarchs had become much more powerful than the nobility, along with the centralization of power, monarchs began to play a much more significant role in the economic decision of their states., specifically, interregional trade. 

    • Many monarchs of Europe demanded spices and other goods that originated along networks of exchange, but due to land-based empires previously reviewed, it caused a drastic increase in the expense of such commodities; due to this, European states had a bigger reason to find other trading routes to lower such prices, namely sea-based routes that could allow them to trade on their own terms.

• Economic:

  • Mercantilism is a state-driven economic system that characterized imperial European states. 

    • Mercantilism saw the world as something that you have to get as much of as possible.

    • mercantilism measured wealth in gold and silver.

      • Due to this, states started a favorable balance of trade by which was when states started to organize their economies around exports and avoid imports as much as possible; this meant that gold and silver was coming in.

    • Mercantilism caused colonies to exist only to enhance the economy of their colonial rulers.

  • joint-stock companies were limited liability businesses that were often chartered by states and funded by a group of private investors.

    • Limited liability meant that investors who gave their money to fund such exploration did not receive profit.

    • states relied on merchants to diffuse their influence into far regions, while merchants relied on states to grant them monopolies on various regions of trade.

    • One joint-stock company to keep in mind is the Dutch East India Company, abbreviated to the VOC, which was chartered by the Dutch state by which also chartered a monopoly on the Indian Ocean trade, which the Dutch dominated.

Maritime empires established their empires in various ways, such being in ways that was through conquering while others relied on their location along trade routes.

• Portugal was one of the first European states to start its maritime trade, mainly focusing on the coastal regions in Africa that were abundant in gold. Due to their reliance on regions along the west African coast, it led them to discover how to reach the Indian Ocean trading network via the south tip of Africa. 

  • Portugal later established a trading post empire, which were various trading posts, otherwise called factories by the Portuguese, located on the coastal regions of Asia and Africa that linked the Portuguese to the Indian Ocean trading network. 

• Spain started to become interested in the Indian Ocean trading network after the Portuguese had already conquered it, therefore ended up sponsoring Columbus to voyage across the Atlantic Ocean to reach what they thought were the West Indies. After Columbus’s discovery of what at the time they called the ‘new world’, Spanish voyagers too started to travel there to establish their claim of the new vast systems of colonization, along with their own establishments of trading posts; opening up afro-Eurasia to the Trans-Atlantic Trade, which would later become even more prosperous than the Indian Ocean trading networks. 

  • Not only did the Spanish rely on colonization of the Americas, they also started heavy colonization of the Philippines; the Spanish maintained their rule by implementing what they had seen in the Americas, such as the tributary system and coerced labor.

• France began their own maritime trade by sponsoring voyagers to find a North-Atlantic Trading route to Asia, but instead found North America, by which they established their presence in what is now Canada.

  • The French started trading with indigenous populations to gain access to the lucrative fur trade. 

  • The holdings of the French in the Americas were small and mainly focused on trade, similar to the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean. 

• England began their maritime trade shortly after the French, sponsoring exploration into the Americas; England's first colony was established on Roanoke island by which they named their colony Virginia, which turned out to fail which by England the turned to their next colony Jamestown. 

  • While England was also focused on the Americas, they weren’t in it for the trade, they were doing it for the power, which they lacked in naval capacity. The English were looking to take power of India but were unable to do so due to their lack of naval power; but as a result of not being able to conquer India, they were able to establish a couple of trading posts along its coast. 

• The Dutch then entered maritime trade, which they later became the most prosperous in the world. 

  • The Dutch mainly focused on their control on important locations along the trading networks of the Indian Ocean while also establishing their own colonies around North  America such as New Amsterdam. 

The most significant effects of maritime trade and colonization included discoveries of the Americas which then led to the flourishing of the columbian exchange. 

• The columbian exchange was the transfer of crops, animals, and even disease across eastern and western hemispheres; which was an environmental phenomena.

  • The transfer of disease such as smallpox and measles was caused due to Europeans, who were among diseases for various centuries, bringing their animals that weren’t native to the Americas and introducing them to indigenous populations which were affected greatly in devastating ways. Another disease transferred was malaria, which was transferred through mosquitos and other disease factors.

  • the transfer of food and plant changed how populations grew in both the western and eastern hemisphere; eastern states brought olives, wheat, grapes, sugar, rice, and bananas while the western states introduced Europeans to potatoes and maize which led to a population explosion is the eastern hemisphere due to being introduced to healthier crops/foods.

    • As demand increased from the eastern hemisphere for American crops, plantations started to emerge, with hundreds of enslaved indigenous and African people working within them. 

      • Cash cropping was commonly used in plantations which referred to methods of growing certain types of crops primarily for export and profit. 

        • Ex: sugarcane in the Caribbean was grown and harvested by enslaved Africans which was later sold and profited off by the Europeans and nations in the Middle East. 

  • As various other things were transferred there came along animals as well, which started various diseases as mentioned before but also diversity to each hemisphere.

    • The eastern hemisphere introduced pigs,sheep, cattle, and the most consequential, the horse, to the Americas.

In this period we now realize that European powers have started to assert themselves as the global dominant powers shown through their colonial rule and maritime trading empires; but there were various forms of resistance to these forms of imperialism by Europeans across the globe.

• Resistance from some Asian states against the intrusion of western powers in the Indian Ocean. 

  • Tokugawa japan was experiencing unity underneath its shogunate rule, but before this imperial powers were trying to assert conversion of religion or assert imperialistic dominance over japan, by which they resisted in violent ways; after this Japan faced extreme isolation from the rest of the world and only maintained trading connectivity with the Dutch.

• Resistance on the local level in European state themselves.

  • After the French adoption of absolutism; which focused all absolute power under the monarch, the fronde rebellions emerged in 1648. New edicts were passed that increased taxation among the monarchs' subjects. This resistance was later crushed which caused the monarch's power to grow even more. 

• Resistance from the enslaved populations.

  • European colonies in the Americas were typically made up of enslaved Africans shipped over through the trans-Atlantic slave trade, but some societies around these colonies were made up of free runaway slaves which later named themselves maroon societies. 

The expansion of maritime trading networks surprisingly also fostered the growth of some African states who attempted to participate in them, which later interconnected states to global economic linkages that those networks had represented, even if the network was becoming more and more European-centered.

• The Asante’s empire in west Africa was able to serve as a market for colonial powers, supplying them with enslaved peoples, ivory, and sometimes even gold; which all led to their own economic advantages.

• The kingdom of the Congo in Southern Africa had ties with the Portuguese by which they supplied gold, copper, and enslaved people; which also converted to Christianity to better facilitate the trade being taken place with European colonial powers; this trade led to the Congolese expansion of wealth.

There was change and continuity within the networks of exchange. 

Extremely important things to note about the trans-Atlantic slave trade that was occurring throughout the world around the same times of the discovery of the Americas. 

• Gender imbalance; mainly in western African states.

• changing of family structures

  • Resulted in polygyny: men marrying more than one woman.

• Cultural synthesis

  • Growing population of creole languages.

One of the main goals of imperialist powers in Europe was their goal to spread religion through missionaries, sometimes implementing their religion on their own colonies which either resulted in full conversion, a mix of native religions and the colonial religion, or the complete “we accept” but instead secretly still practicing their native religion.

social hierarchies changed in such ways,

• States responded differently to minorities and majorities of their populations.

  • Spain expelled the Jews from their colonies

  • ottomans tolerated the presence of jews

• the rise of political elites

  • The Spanish imposed their casta system by which ranked people on the hierarchy based on their ancestry and how much Spanish blood they acquired. 

    • Erased diversity

  • transition from the Ming to the Qing (exclusion of ethnically han people).

• Struggle of existing elites in states.

  • Members of various states started to fall after imperialistic colonies started to rule.

Period 2, Review Questions.

1. What were the main ideas behind the renaissance, and how did it reflect a shift in European thought and culture during the 14th and 17th centuries?

2. How did the Protestant reformation challenge the authority of the Catholic Church and led to the emergence of new Christian dominations?

The Protestant reformation questioned the practices of the church, questions such as, where did the church receive such income, why did the church want people to buy the sales of indulgences in order to receive forgiveness, and why/how did the church misinterpret and disregard salvation?

3. What were the causes of the age of exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries?

The European expedition for Asian markets without having to receive imports from the Silk Road trading network; this led to Columbus sailing the Atlantic in search for Asian markets but instead finding the Americas, thus leading to other European states joining in the exploration.

4. What role did the Atlantic slave trade play in economies of the European colonial powers and the societies of Africa and the Americas?

The Atlantic slave trade increased agricultural production for various European states who were receiving slaves, which caused population growth and economic growth.

5. What were the main contributions of the scientific revolution to western thought, and how did this period challenge traditional views?

6. How did mercantilism influence the economic policies of European states during the 16th and 18th centuries?

Mercantilism allowed for European states to prosper, in wealth and their population size. Mercantilism allowed for production of agricultural means and income to be given to European states from their colonies. Agricultural production in European colonies caused massive population growth, which also led to European states moving parts of their populations to live within the regions of their colonies.

7. What were the significant characteristics of the ottoman and Mughal empires, and how did they illustrate the concepts of “gunpowder empires”?

The Ottomans and the Mughals were both Sunni Muslim, which meant that they both believed the successor of Muhammad to be anyone. Both the Ottomans and the Mughals also relied on gunpowder weapons to expand their empires, which they adopted from the Chinese. Both the Ottomans and the Mughals had conflict with the Safavids, who were Shi’a Muslim.

9. Fill out the chart.

PERIOD 3 (unit 5 and 6)

1756 TO 1763: EUROPE

Between 1756 and 1763 is the 7 years war, which is ‘fought’ between 

1760 TO 1789: GLOBAL

In 1760, the first industrial revolution began with various technological advancements such as the steam engine.

• An important factor to note about the Industrial Revolution is the fact that it started in Great Britain, by which before had relied on their island location and water sources for their factories, but in the 1760s they started to industrialize with their abundance of coal and iron, but needed resources for industrialization, which they weren’t abundant in.

• Important people to know:

  • Charles Darwin: 

  • Adam Smith: Author of “The Wealth of the Nations” who supported capitalism and valued the importance of free markets along with the invention of the assembly line which he invented.

  • Karl Marx: German theorist who critiqued the capitalist party and believed that the social problem present then were the direct cause of capitalism.

    • Created the social class of Marxism, which was a type of communism that stressed the importance of class struggle and advocated for a classless society with economic balance.

1765 TO 1783: AMERICAS

In 1765, the enlightenment influenced the American civilization to revolt against the British, therefore resulting in the American Revolution. 

• The American Revolution provided a template for other nations, encouraging them that they can gain independence as well.

• The causes of the American Revolution:

  • Enlightenment

  • Debt

1789 TO 1795: FRANCE

Due to the influence of the American Revolution, in 1789, the French began to revolt against their monarchy as well. Resulting in the French Revolution.

• The French Revolution was caused by social inequality between the estates, economic hardships, enlightenment, weak leadership, and food shortages, so overall:

  • Enlightenment

  • Debt

  • Hunger

1791 TO 1804: HAITI

As a pattern, due to the French Revolution, the Haitians were influenced by their French colonial rule and decided to revolt against them as well. 

• An important person that played a major role in the Haitian Revolution was Toussaint L’overture who led an army of 20,000 in order to revolt.

1792: EUROPE

In 1792, the start of feminism was in motion.

• The Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written by Mary Wollstonecraft whom became a symbol of various feminist movements across europe.

1799 TO 1815: FRANCE

At the beginning of 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte began his reign in France, by working his way up from a military officer into conquering various territories.

1806 TO 1860: LATIN AMERICA

From all of the influence around the world, Latin america began their own revolutions, in order to tear away from dictatorships and colonial rulings from other countries, the Latin American Revolution emerged.

• Simon Bolívar brought in enlightenment ideas to Latin Americans, showing them that they too can gain sovereignty while also bringing in Marxist ideology.

1839 TO 1860: CHINA-EUROPE

In the 1830s Europe started selling opium to China in exchange for resources such as silver and other commodities.

• Opium trade led to the opium wars, and the opium wars led to the treaty of Nanjing.

  • The Treaty of Nanjing was a treaty that opened china to western trade and settlement, this treaty was forced onto china by Great Britain after the first opium war and allowed for the British control of Hong Kong.

1839 TO 1876: EGYPT

In 1839, the Tanzimat reforms were being put into place, which allowed for more steps towards industrialization.

• The tanzimat reforms were reorganizations in Egypt that drafted new law codes and undermined the power of traditional religious elites.

  • Under the tanzimat reforms, janissaries were killed.

1845 TO 1849; IRELAND

In 1845, the Irish potato famine took place and caused widespread famine that caused thousands to die due to contamination of potatoes; this famine caused Irish immigration westward.

1848

In 1848, the communist manifesto was created.

• The communist manifesto was a manifesto stating all human history has been the struggle between social classes and that the future lays in the hands of the working class.

along with the communist manifesto being created in 1848, the Seneca falls convention also took place.

• The Seneca Falls convention called for a constitutional amendment that recognized women’s right to vote.

1850 TO 1864: CHINA

In China during 1850’s, various Chinese citizens were displeased with the Qing government, thus leading to the Taiping Rebellion. 

• The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, a village school teacher who believed he was the half brother of Jesus. 

• The Taiping Rebellion led to the weakening of the Qing dynasty.

1857: INDIA

In 1857, the British began to supply India with gun power, for their colonial army, the gun technology that was used required for recruits to bite the tip of a gun powder case off in order to fuel their guns, but the casing (cartridges) was made from pig and cow fat; the cartridges being made of animal fat went against Islamic loyalty among different variants of Islamic religions such as Muslim and Hinduism. 

• The explanation above led to the sepoy revolt, by which various Muslims and Hindus revolted against the British. 

  • The sepoy revolt had failed and the British continued to assert their colonial power over india.

1859: EGYPT

In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by British forces in Egypt; this opened up trade routes through the Arabian peninsula instead of going around the southern African tip for European traders/sailors.

1860 TO 1870: EUROPE

In the 1860s, social Darwinism began to emerge across the globe

• Social Darwinism applied natural selection to human sociology, which created a belief that there were races dominant to others

  • Social Darwinism made it out to be that Britain was the most powerful in their eyes.

1861: RUSSIA

In 1861, the serfs and serfdom was emancipated, meaning serfs are freed from their serfdom.

1869 TO 1909: THE CONGO

In 1869, King Leopold purchased the Congo in Africa with his own money, renaming it to the Congo Free State, implying that slavery and other forms of forced labor wasn’t occurring there. King Leopold then gifted the Congo to Belgium, which he was king of, so that the entirety of Belgium could prosper with the Congo’s wealth.

• King Leopold initiates slavery through plantations, specifically, plantations for rubber. Other forms of goods that were extracted from the Congo by Belgium n lauded ivory and gold. 

• Various forms of torture occurred in the Congo; the Congolese had been put into slavery, forced to extract the goods from their homeland and give them over to Belgium, along with forced labor, Belgium recruits that operated the plantations and slaves in the congo asserted forms of torture to the Congolese; cutting off of hands, removing entire limbs, raping women, and starving them.

1896: JAPAN

In 1869, Tokugawa Japan entered the Meiji restoration era, coined by Meiji. 

• At this time, Japan began industrializing, slowly making its way into becoming a world power through westernization.

• The cause of the Meiji restoration was due to Matthew Perry, an American commander, demanding that Japan open themselves up to trade with the U.S.—this caused Japan to realize they had been behind in industrialization; due to Matthew Perry’s intimidating command, Japan entered the Meiji Restoration Era and started to industrialize.

1870 TO 1914: GLOBAL

In 1870, the second Industrial Revolution occurred.

• The second Industrial Revolution was

1871: GERMANY

In 1871, Germany was unified by Otto Von Bismarck.

1882: THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

In 1882, the Chinese exclusion act began, in order to rid Chinese influence in the United States, this act was issued in order to deteriorate any well-meaner thoughts on China by. U.S. citizens.

• The Chinese exclusion act has heavily impacted the country today, it is very common for older generations to act racists towards anything and anyone that is relatively Chinese.

1885: EUROPE

In 1885, the Berlin conference occurred.

• The Berlin Conference was a conference discussing among European powers the division and partitioning of Africa. 

• In the conference, European powers raced to seize territories and regions in Africa, this was mainly due to the abundance of resources that Africa was extremely wealthy in.

• This led to the “scramble for Africa”.

1890s: CHINA-EUROPE

In the 1890s, European powers began selling opium to China and other Asian countries in exchange for luxury goods. At this time, China wasn’t as industrialized as other parts of the world, thus resulting in their deteriorating economy and influence.

• The opium wars were a series of events that led to 1/3rd of China becoming addicted to opioids. 

• The opium wars led to death and various other medical problems among Chinese citizens. Due to this, the emperor of china had attempted to ban opium, but then got demoted from his rank.

  • Due to the emperor's attempted ban of opioids, the British invaded China in order to sell more opium, which further decreased Chinese power.

• The opium wars led to the forced treaty between Britain and China, the Treaty of Nanjing, which opened China up to western trade and settlements.

  • The treaty of Nanjing led to the reaction of the spheres of influence; the spheres of influence were sections of China that other countries took control of.

• Later, the opium trade was ended by Lin Zexu.

1898: AMERICAS

In 1898, the Spanish-American war began, starting with the U.S. disguising their imperialistic motives in order to expand their territory further into southern america. 

• The United States acquired Guam, Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

• In 1899, the united fruit company was established, which was created by the United States in order to profit off of the plantations they had established in southern america.

  • The United fruit company played a great role in strengthening western rule in developing countries.

1899 TO 1901: CHINA

In 1899, the boxer rebellion had started; the boxer rebellion was a rebellion run by press Cixi, who wanted to rid foreign influence from china.

• Extremely violent. 

PERIOD 3 SUMMARY: THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW

Period 3, Review Questions.