AP Biology Key Vocabulary Flashcards

Unit 1-2: Chemistry of Life + Cell Structure and Function

• Water Chemistry:
  • Hydrogen bonding: Water molecules stick to each other via hydrogen bonds.
  • Cohesion: Water molecules stick to each other.
  • Adhesion: Water molecules stick to surfaces.
  • Polarity: Water is polar due to unequal sharing of electrons.
  • Non-polar molecules: Exhibit equal sharing of electrons.
• Macromolecules:
  • Monomers join to form polymers through dehydration synthesis (water is removed).
  • Polymers are broken down into monomers through hydrolysis (water is added).
• Proteins:
  • Four levels of structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary). Structure determines function.
• Enzymes:
  • Lower activation energy of reactions.
  • Exhibit substrate specificity.
  • Activity is affected by temperature, pH, and salinity.
• Negative Feedback Regulation:
  • A process where the end product inhibits earlier steps in the pathway.
• Cell Types:
  • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
  • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Plant vs. Animal Cells:
  • Plant cells: Cell walls, chloroplasts, large central vacuoles.
  • Animal cells: Centrioles, lysosomes.
• Cell Membranes:
  • Phospholipid bilayer: Selective permeability.
  • Passive transport: Diffusion, osmosis (high to low concentration, no energy required).
  • Active transport: Requires energy (ATP).
  • Hypotonic solution: Cell swells.
  • Isotonic solution: Cell volume is stable.
  • Hypertonic solution: Cell shrinks.

Unit 3: Cell Energy + Plant Structure/Function

• Cellular Respiration:
  • ATP production: ADP + P \rightarrow ATP
  • Equation: C6H{12}O6 + 6O2 \rightarrow 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
  • Glycolysis: Anaerobic, yields 2 ATP.
  • Krebs cycle: Releases CO_2, produces electron carriers.
  • Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Chemiosmosis: Major ATP production.
  • Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the ETC.
• Fermentation:
  • Alcoholic fermentation (yeast).
  • Lactic acid fermentation (muscle cells).
• Photosynthesis:
  • Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light \rightarrow C6H{12}O6 + 6O2
  • Light reactions: ATP and NADPH production.
  • Calvin cycle: Uses ATP, NADPH, and CO_2 to make glucose.
• Plant Transport:
  • Water moves via xylem (transpiration pull, cohesion, adhesion).
  • Sugars move via phloem (source to sink).
  • Water potential: Pure water = 0; water moves from high to low potential.
  • Stomata: Control gas exchange.

Unit 4: Cell Communication + Cell Cycle

• Cell Cycle:
  • Interphase: G1, S, G2
  • Mitosis: PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).
  • Cytokinesis: Animal vs. plant cells.
  • Chromatin: Loose DNA.
  • Condensed chromosome: DNA during mitosis.
  • Methylation: Silences genes.
  • Acetylation: Activates genes.
• Mitosis vs. Meiosis:
  • Mitosis: Clones cells for growth/repair.
  • Meiosis: Produces gametes, generates genetic variation (crossing over during Prophase I).
• Communication:
  • Direct contact: Plants (plasmodesmata), animals (gap junctions).
  • Signal transduction: Reception → transduction → response.
  • Endocrine system: Hormones.
  • Nervous system: Neurons.

Unit 5: Genetics + Inheritance

• Mendelian Genetics:
  • Punnett squares.
  • Genotype vs. phenotype.
  • Gene vs. allele vs. locus.
  • Independent assortment vs. linked genes.
• Other Inheritance Patterns:
  • Incomplete dominance: Blending of traits.
  • Codominance: Both traits are expressed.
  • Sex-linked traits: X-linked.
• Chi-Square Tests:
  • Determine if observed results are significantly different from expected results.
• Pedigrees and Human Disease:
  • Analyze inheritance patterns in families.

Unit 6-7: Molecular Biology (Gene Expression + Biotech)

• DNA Replication:
  • Semi-conservative.
  • 5’ → 3’ direction.
  • Leading vs. lagging strands.
  • Enzymes: Helicase (unwinds DNA), DNA polymerase (builds DNA), Ligase (seals DNA fragments), Primase (starts with RNA primer).
• Gene Expression:
  • Transcription: DNA → RNA.
  • RNA processing: Splicing, 5’ cap, poly-A tail.
  • Translation: RNA → protein.
  • Start and stop codons.
  • Universal genetic code.
• Operons:
  • Lac operon: Inducible.
  • Trp operon: Repressible.
• Biotech Tools:
  • Bacterial transformation, plasmids, restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis.
• Viruses:
  • DNA/RNA inside a protein coat.
  • Lytic cycle: Virus bursts host cell.
  • Lysogenic cycle: Virus is dormant inside host cell.
  • Retroviruses: HIV uses reverse transcriptase.
• Genetic Engineering:
  • Recombinant DNA, CRISPR, antibiotic resistance genes.

Unit 8: Natural Selection

• Evolution Evidence:
  • Fossils, biogeography, embryology, homologous structures.
• Natural Selection:
  • Variation → competition → differential survival (Darwin).
• Types of Selection:
  • Stabilizing: Average phenotype is favored.
  • Directional: One extreme phenotype is favored.
  • Disruptive: Both extreme phenotypes are favored.
• Population Genetics:
  • Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: No evolution if all conditions are met (large population, random mating, no mutation, no gene flow, no natural selection).
• Factors: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection.
• Speciation:
  • Allopatric: Geographic separation.
  • Sympatric: Behavioral isolation.
• Evolution Theories:
  • Gradualism: Slow, steady change.
  • Punctuated Equilibrium: Bursts of rapid change.
• Early Earth:
  • Miller-Urey experiment: Origin of organic molecules.
  • Endosymbiosis: Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria.
• Hominid Evolution:
  • Human ancestors adapted upright walking and brain growth.

Unit 9: Ecology

• Animal Behavior:
  • Fixed action patterns, migration, pheromones, imprinting.
• Biomes:
  • 8 terrestrial (e.g., desert, tundra, rainforest) + 8 aquatic (e.g., coral reefs, estuaries).
• Population Dynamics:
  • Exponential vs. logistic growth.
  • Carrying capacity (K).
  • Human population trends (age pyramids).
• Ecological Relationships:
  • Symbiosis: Parasitism, mutualism, commensalism.
  • Predator-prey cycles.
• Ecosystem Energy:
  • Producers → consumers → decomposers.
• Nutrient cycles:
  • Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus.
• Ecosystem Productivity:
  • GPP vs. NPP: GPP - R_a = NPP (Gross Primary Productivity minus respiration equals Net Primary Productivity).
• Environmental Issues:
  • Eutrophication (nutrient runoff → dead zones).
  • Habitat loss and biodiversity threats.
  • Biological magnification (toxins accumulate up the food chain).