Introduction to Social Psychology-Chapter 2

PSYC 201: Introduction to Social Psychology

Methods of Social Psychology

The Value of Social Psychology Research

  • Our opinions about human behavior can often be misleading.

  • Intuitive understanding of behavior is often insufficient; what seems like common sense can be incorrect.

Hindsight Bias

  • Defined as:

    • People’s tendency to be overconfident about predicting outcomes.

    • Leads to overestimating the effectiveness of common sense in retrospect.

How Social Psychologists Test Ideas

  • Steps in Research Process:

    1. State the Problem: Identify a specific problem to study.

    2. Formulate Hypothesis: Develop a testable hypothesis based on the problem.

    3. Design the Study: Plan a research design to gather data.

    4. Statistical Analysis: Use statistical methods to test data compatibility with the hypothesis.

    5. Report Findings: Aid in scientific community through a manuscript submission detailing methods and results.

Research Types

  • Basic Research:

    • Focuses on understanding phenomena fundamentally.

  • Applied Research:

    • Targets solving real-world problems.

  • Intervention:

    • Acts as a bridge between basic and applied research.

Examples of Research Types

  • Basic Research Example:

    • Development of a new vaccine to combat a specific disease.

  • Applied Research Example:

    • Studying the growth process of oak trees.

Theory in Research

  • Theory Definition:

    • A set of related propositions designed to describe an aspect of the world, supported by empirical evidence.

  • Examples:

    • Assertion: Watching violent TV shows increases aggression.

Hypothesis in Research

  • Hypothesis Definition:

    • A prediction regarding specific outcomes in defined circumstances, often related to broader theories.

  • Examples:

    • Causal Hypothesis: "Watching violent TV causes increased aggression."

    • Correlational Hypothesis: "There is a positive association between watching violent TV and aggression levels."

Relationship Between Theory and Hypothesis

  • Transition from general (theory) to specific (hypothesis):

    • Example:

    • Theory: High self-esteem correlates with success.

    • Hypothesis: High self-esteem scores correlate with better college grades.

Research Methods

  • Diverse methods employed for gathering data in social psychology include:

    • Observational Research

    • Archival Research

    • Surveys

    • Correlational Research

    • Experimental Research

Observational Research

  • Involves observing social situations in a controlled, semi-formal manner.

  • Often augmented with additional research techniques.

Archival Research

  • Involves analyzing previously documented social behaviors.

  • Sources may include newspapers, police reports, and hospital records.

    • Example: Analyzing homicide rates in different regions (Nisbett et al., 1993).

Surveys

  • Utilizes interviews or questionnaires to gather data from participants.

  • Must consider potential biases in sample selection.

    • Historical Reference: 1936 presidential election prediction failures due to biased sampling methods.

Populations and Samples

  • Population of Interest: The specific group being studied, e.g., Champaign county residents.

  • Sample: A subset drawn from this population, e.g., 100 psychology students.

Sampling Techniques

  • Random Sampling: Ensures equal chance of selection for all in the population.

  • Convenience Sampling: Members selected from readily available subgroups; typically leads to bias.

Correlational Research

  • A method investigating the relationship between two variables without random assignment.

  • Focuses on measuring the linear relationship; can illustrate correlations but not causation.

Limitations of Correlational Research

  • Spurious Correlation: False implications of causation; impacted by unmeasured third variables.

    • Example: High church numbers correlate with higher crime rates due to a third factor (socioeconomic conditions).

Experimental Research

  • Only this method can determine causality through systematic control and manipulation of variables.

  • Requires random assignment to conditions and careful measurement of behavior outcomes.

Variable Definitions

  • Independent Variable (IV): The manipulated variable hypothesized to be a cause.

  • Dependent Variable (DV): The measured outcome that responds to changes in the IV.

Random Assignment and Control Conditions

  • Random assignment equalizes participants across conditions to enhance study validity.

  • Control conditions compare to experimental conditions to isolate effects of the IV.

Experiment Example

  • Initial Group Hypothesis Example:

    • Watching violent TV increases aggression; manipulation includes control (cooking show) vs. experimental (violent TV) conditions.

Limitations of Experimental Research

  • Certain variables cannot be ethically or practically assigned randomly.

  • True experiments may be unnecessary for broad research questions.

Criteria of Sound Research

Validity

  • Internal Validity: Assurance that manipulated independent variables caused the observed outcomes.

  • External Validity: Extent to which results apply to real-world situations.

    • Trade-off: Enhancing external validity can compromise internal validity due to naturalistic settings.

Reliability

  • Reliability Definition: Consistency of measurements over time; repeat tests yield similar results.

  • Validity Definition: The extent to which a measure assesses what it is intended to measure.