readings

Here is the requested information for each article.

• Acuto Inka Landscapes Archaeology.pdf

  • Author: Félix A. Acuto

  • Findings:

    • The Inkas used spatial forms tactically to regulate interactions, create representations, and shape experiences within their empire.

    • Three main principles organized Inka spatial design:

      • Stratification - creating landscapes of inequality

      • Rituality - creating landscapes of commemoration and spectacle

      • Control - creating landscapes of control

    • Inca provincial centers were loci of diplomacy, hospitality celebrations, and ritualized exchange.

    • These centers were microcosms of Cuzco, legitimizing Inca rule.

  • Historical Dates: Inka Empire, specifically the period of Inka colonialism. This period is generally considered to be from the mid-15th century to the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.

  • Methods: Analysis of spatial layouts of Inka provincial centers, drawing on archaeological data and existing literature.

  • Obstacles:

    • The Inka state was not completely unified and local administrative principles varied.

    • There was significant variability in Inka strategies of domination and local societies played an active role in shaping colonial relationships.

    • Acuto's article primarily takes a synchronic view of settlements, neglecting the historical processes of Inka domination.

    • The occupational history of settlements is overlooked, as the analysis focuses on the final architectural plan.

• Archaeology Introduction Chapter 10.pdf

  • Author: Michael MacKinnon

  • Findings:

    • Urban environments in Roman antiquity hosted a variety of organisms that interacted in complex ways.

    • This period witnessed diverse urbanized spaces, including cities, towns, and military settlements.

    • Understanding the interactions between humans and non-humans in these settings can provide insights into ecological and cultural operations, attitudes, and behaviors.

    • Zooarchaeological evidence from sites like Pompeii, Ostia, Athens, and Carthage can help explore these interactions.

    • Paleopathological studies can reveal insights into disease incidence and prevalence within urban settings.

    • Further research is needed to move beyond case studies and develop broader syntheses of pathological conditions to understand the complex relationships between humans and animals in the past.

  • Historical Dates: Roman antiquity, broadly between c. 500 BC to c. 500 AD

  • Methods:

    • Zooarchaeological analysis

    • Paleopathological studies

  • Obstacles:

    • Challenges in tracking disease through zooarchaeology, including:

      • Osteological representation of ailments

      • Identification and diagnosis of conditions and etiologies

      • Lack of modern comparative material for assessment

      • Complications associated with taphonomy, preservation, and reporting of affected faunal remains

• Carballo Robb Teotihuacan.pdf

  • Author: David M. Carballo and Mathew H. Robb

  • Findings:

    • Teotihuacan, a major city in Central Mexico, was a planned city with a unique grid layout and apartment compounds.

    • It was not a fortress city like many other Mesoamerican urban centers, and lacked prominent defensive walls.

    • Teotihuacan was an economic powerhouse and a hub for interregional commerce throughout Mesoamerica.

    • Teotihuacan's decline is still debated, with possible causes including ecological decline, internal social tensions, and conflict with other polities.

  • Historical Dates: Teotihuacan flourished from around the first century AD to the mid-sixth century AD.

  • Methods: Archaeological excavations and analysis of material culture.

  • Obstacles:

    • Understanding the specific social roles and hierarchies within Teotihuacan society.

    • Determining the exact causes and processes leading to the city's decline.

• Chinese Agriculture Persistence Antiquity 2020.pdf

  • Author: Yuan Jing, Li Min, and Rowan Flad

  • Findings:

    • Five large Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in the Yellow River region (Xipo, Bancun, Zhouli, Wadian, and Xinzhai) show a persistence of subsistence strategies despite climate change around 4000 cal BP.

    • Millet agriculture remained a dietary staple during this period.

    • Pigs and dogs were important domesticates and likely consumed millet byproducts.

    • This resilience suggests the adoption of flexible and adaptable agricultural practices by these early farming communities.

  • Historical Dates: Neolithic and Bronze Age periods in China, specifically focusing on a period of climate change around 4000 cal BP.

  • Methods:

    • Zooarchaeological analysis - identifying and quantifying animal remains

    • Archaeobotanical analysis - identifying and quantifying plant remains

    • Isotopic analysis of human, pig, and dog remains - analyzing carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes to understand diet

  • Obstacles:

    • The sites were excavated by different teams with varying sampling strategies, making direct comparisons challenging.

    • The small-scale and preliminary nature of analyses at each site limits the scope of interpretations.

    • Hand-recovery of zooarchaeological assemblages likely under-represents remains of fish, birds, and small mammals.

• Dobson Beringia Archaeology.pdf

  • Author: Jerome E. Dobson, Giorgio Spada, and Gaia Galassi

  • Findings:

    • Retrospective sea-level mapping reveals an archipelago (Bering Transitory Archipelago) that likely existed from >30,000 BP to 8000 BP in the Bering Sea.

    • This archipelago offers a new explanation (Stepping-Stones Hypothesis) for the first human migration to the Americas.

    • The Bering Transitory Archipelago would have provided a viable pathway with abundant resources, freshwater, and protected waters for maritime people.

    • The hypothesis meets the four criteria for a viable explanation: a source population in Asia, a pathway with sufficient sustenance, settlement sites in North America soon after but not before the proposed date, and a sanctuary for the development of a distinct genetic profile.

  • Historical Dates: >30,000 BP to 8000 BP

  • Methods:

    • Retrospective sea-level mapping using a Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) model.

    • Hypsometric analysis of the Bering Sea region.

  • Obstacles:

    • Verifying individual island matches between their reconstruction and previous research due to differences in resolution and documentation.

• Fisher 2023 Maya Monumentality.pdf

  • Author: Chelsea Fisher

  • Findings:

    • Monumentality in the Maya lowlands is traditionally linked to political complexity, but it can also be understood as embodying traditional ecological knowledge (TEK).

    • Fieldstone gathering, a TEK practice for clearing land for cultivation, is linked to agricultural intensification and the emergence of monumentality during the Late and Terminal Formative periods (300 BC - AD 250).

    • This is evident at the Tzacauil site in Yucatán, Mexico, where monumental architecture incorporates significant amounts of fieldstone.

    • Exploring the connections between monumental traditions and localized TEK practices can provide a deeper understanding of complexity, subsistence, and human-environment interactions.

  • Historical Dates: Late and Terminal Formative periods (300 BC - AD 250)

  • Methods:

    • Archaeological excavations at the Tzacauil site.

    • Integration of LiDAR data with traditional ecological knowledge survey.

  • Obstacles:

    • Twentieth-century ethnographic and ethnoarchaeological accounts of stone gathering might not fully represent the scale and scope of early agricultural intensification and fieldstone clearance practices in the Maya lowlands.

    • The inherently localized nature of TEK means there will be variations in how it is manifested in monumentality across the Maya region.

• Fremont Maize Vernon.pdf

  • Author: Kenneth B. Vernon, Peter M. Yaworsky, Weston McCool, Jerry D. Spangler, Simon Brewer, and Brian F. Codding

  • Findings:

    • The Fremont, an archaeological culture in the North American Southwest, practiced a mixed economy of maize agriculture and foraging, with maize playing a significant but not dominant role.

    • The adoption and intensity of maize agriculture among the Fremont varied spatially and temporally.

    • Environmental factors, particularly precipitation, significantly influenced the success and viability of maize agriculture in different areas.

  • Historical Dates: The Fremont archaeological culture existed from approximately AD 400 to 1350.

  • Methods:

    • Archaeological data from Fremont sites.

    • Environmental data, including precipitation records and paleoclimatic reconstructions.

    • Predictive modeling using machine learning algorithms to assess the relationship between environmental variables and maize agriculture.

  • Obstacles:

    • Ambiguities in archaeological data and interpretations regarding the extent and intensity of Fremont maize agriculture.

    • Limitations in accurately reconstructing past environmental conditions and their influence on maize farming.

• Hard et al. Maize NW Mexico (1).pdf

  • Author: Robert J. Hard, Karen R. Adams, John R. Roney, Kari M. Schmidt, and Gayle J. Fritz

  • Findings:

    • Maize farming emerged in northwest Mexico around 3200 years ago, potentially as a response to population pressure and environmental changes.

    • The adoption of maize agriculture led to significant shifts in settlement patterns, social organization, and subsistence strategies.

    • Early maize farmers in this region employed innovative techniques, such as terracing and water control, to adapt to challenging environmental conditions.

  • Historical Dates: The study focuses on the emergence of maize farming in northwest Mexico, approximately 3200 years ago (around 1200 BC).

  • Methods:

    • Archaeological excavations at sites like Cerro Juanaqueña.

    • Analysis of architectural features, such as terraces and water control structures.

    • Zooarchaeological analysis of faunal remains to reconstruct dietary practices.

    • Archaeobotanical analysis of plant remains, including maize, to understand subsistence strategies.

  • Obstacles:

    • Limited availability of early maize remains due to preservation issues.

    • Reconstructing the precise environmental conditions and their influence on early maize adoption.

    • Understanding the specific social and cultural factors that facilitated the adoption of maize agriculture.

• Roman Water by Dermody et al.pdf

  • Author: B.J. Dermody, R.P.H. van Beek, E. Meeks, K.K. Goldewijk, W. Scheidel, Y. van der Velde, M.F.P. Bierkens, M.J. Wassen, and S.C. Dekker

  • Findings:

    • The Roman Empire's reliance on the virtual water trade (importing water-intensive crops) made it vulnerable to both crop failures and disruptions in trade networks.

  • Historical Dates: Roman Empire. While the article doesn't specify a precise time range, it focuses on the Roman Empire's reliance on the virtual water trade, a practice that was particularly significant during the period of its greatest territorial expansion and population growth (roughly the first two centuries AD).

  • Methods:

    • Examination of historical data related to Roman agricultural practices and trade networks.

    • Likely employed modeling techniques to assess the Roman Empire's virtual water footprint and trade flows, but specific models are not mentioned in the excerpt provided.

  • Obstacles:

    • Reconstructing the precise quantities and flows of virtual water trade in the Roman Empire due to limitations in historical data.

• Tikal Sustainability Lentz et al.pdf

  • Author: David L. Lentz, Nicholas P. Dunning, Vernon L. Scarborough, and Liwy Grazioso

  • Findings:

    • The ancient Maya city of Tikal exhibited a complex and resilient system of resource management that allowed it to sustain a large population for over 1500 years.

    • This system involved a deep understanding of the local environment, innovative agricultural techniques, and careful management of water resources.

    • Tikal's eventual collapse was likely due to a combination of factors, including environmental stress, population pressure, and political instability.

  • Historical Dates: The study examines Tikal's long occupation, spanning over 1500 years, and its eventual collapse in the mid-9th century CE.

  • Methods:

    • Multi-disciplinary research approach integrating archaeological, paleoecological, and environmental data.

    • Settlement pattern research, examining the distribution of ancient Maya settlements and their relationship to the environment.

    • Likely incorporated remote sensing and GIS techniques to analyze landscape features and land use.

  • Obstacles:

    • Reconstructing the precise details of Tikal's resource management system due to data limitations and the complexity of the ancient Maya socio-political system.

    • Determining the relative importance of various factors contributing to Tikal's collapse.