Untitled Flashcards Set

1. Columbian Exchange & Effects on Natives:
   
   

   • The Columbian Exchange refers to the transfer of goods, ideas, people, and diseases between the New World (Americas) and the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia).

   • Impact on Natives: Native populations suffered devastating losses due to diseases like smallpox and measles, which wiped out up to 90% of Indigenous people in some regions. The exchange also led to new agricultural products (e.g., corn, potatoes) in Europe but disrupted Native cultures and societies.

2. Distinct Characteristics of Colonies:
   
   

   • New England Colonies (e.g., Massachusetts, Connecticut): Founded for religious freedom (Puritans), with a focus on small-scale farming, trade, and religious communities.

   • Chesapeake Colonies (e.g., Virginia, Maryland): Focused on tobacco cultivation, which required large-scale labor, initially through indentured servitude and later through African slavery.

   • Middle Colonies (e.g., Pennsylvania, New York): Known for religious diversity (e.g., Quakers), fertile land for farming grains, and a mix of agriculture and trade.

   • Southern Colonies (e.g., South Carolina, Georgia): Economy based on plantation agriculture (especially rice and indigo), with a heavy reliance on African slave labor.

3. Mercantilism & Navigation Acts:
   
   

   • Mercantilism: Economic theory that emphasizes the accumulation of wealth through trade, especially the belief that colonies existed to benefit the mother country (Britain). Colonies were expected to provide raw materials and serve as markets for British goods.

   • Navigation Acts (1651-1673): A series of laws passed by Britain to restrict colonial trade to benefit the British economy. These laws required that certain goods (e.g., tobacco, sugar) be shipped only to England or other English colonies.

People:

1. Bartolomé de las Casas:
   
   

   • A Spanish missionary and advocate for the rights of Native Americans. He condemned the exploitation of Natives and argued for more humane treatment, though his critiques did not end Spain’s colonial abuses.

2. John Winthrop:
   
   

   • Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Winthrop envisioned the colony as a “city upon a hill,” a model of Christian charity. His leadership helped establish Puritan values as a core part of New England's social structure.

3. Anne Hutchinson:
   
   

   • A Puritan spiritual leader who challenged the male-dominated religious hierarchy in Massachusetts, advocating for a personal relationship with God over traditional clergy authority. Her dissent led to her exile from Massachusetts and the founding of Rhode Island.

4. William Penn:
   
   

   • Founder of Pennsylvania, a Quaker colony known for religious tolerance, peaceful relations with Native Americans, and a democratic government.

5. Roger Williams:
   
   

   • A religious dissenter and founder of Rhode Island, Williams advocated for separation of church and state, religious freedom, and fair dealings with Native Americans, challenging the Puritan orthodoxy in Massachusetts.

Events:

1. Jamestown Established (1607):
   
   

   • The first permanent English colony in North America, founded in Virginia. Its early years were marked by struggles, including disease, famine, and conflict with Native Americans. The introduction of tobacco cultivation helped it thrive.

2. Mayflower Compact (1620):
   
   

   • A social contract signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, establishing a self-governing colony in Plymouth. It was one of the first steps toward self-government in the American colonies.

3. Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1646):
   
   

   • A series of conflicts between the English settlers in Virginia and the Powhatan Confederacy. The wars resulted in the displacement and decimation of the Powhatan people and the establishment of English dominance in the region.

4. Virginia House of Burgesses Created (1619):
   
   

   • The first representative legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in Virginia. It marked a step toward self-government.

5. Headright System (1618):
   
   

   • A system in which settlers were granted land in exchange for paying their way to the colonies. This system helped encourage settlement in Virginia and provided land for tobacco cultivation.

6. Bacon’s Rebellion (1676):
   
   

   • A revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon against the Virginia government over issues such as lack of protection from Native American attacks and perceived government corruption. It exposed tensions between the wealthy planters and the poor, leading to a shift toward African slavery.

7. Great Awakening (1730s-1740s):
   
   

   • A religious revival movement that emphasized personal salvation and the emotional aspects of worship. It led to a greater diversity of religious denominations and fostered a spirit of questioning authority, which would later contribute to revolutionary sentiments.

PERIOD 3: The American Revolution (1754-1800)

Themes:

1. Causes of the American Revolution:
   
   

   • British taxes (e.g., Stamp Act, Tea Act) and acts of control (e.g., Intolerable Acts) angered colonists, leading to protests and the desire for independence.

   • Enlightenment ideas about natural rights and self-government, as well as the experience of self-rule in the colonies, further fueled revolutionary sentiment.

2. Strengths & Weaknesses of Each Side in the Revolution:
   
   

   • The British: Had a powerful military, a strong navy, and wealth, but struggled with long supply lines and alienating local populations.

   • The Americans: Had the advantage of fighting on their home soil, strong leadership (e.g., George Washington), and foreign aid, particularly from France, but faced challenges with a lack of resources and a small, untrained army.

3. Emergence of the 2-Party System (Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists → Democratic-Republicans):
   
   

   • Federalists, led by figures like Alexander Hamilton, supported a strong central government and a broad interpretation of the Constitution.

   • Anti-Federalists (later Democratic-Republicans), led by Thomas Jefferson, favored states' rights and a limited federal government. This division led to the first political parties in U.S. history.

4. Women in the Revolution (and on the road to Revolution):
   
   

   • Women played key roles by organizing boycotts, supplying goods to the army, and managing households. Figures like Abigail Adams called for more attention to women’s rights, with her famous letter to her husband asking him to "remember the ladies."

People:

1. Thomas Paine:
   
   

   • Author of Common Sense, a pamphlet that argued for independence from Britain and helped galvanize public support for the Revolution.

2. Abigail Adams:
   
   

   • Wife of President John Adams and an early advocate for women's rights. She is famous for her letters urging her husband to "remember the ladies" when forming the new government.

3. Thomas Jefferson (as Secretary of State & VP):
   
   

   • As Secretary of State and later Vice President under John Adams, Jefferson opposed Federalist policies, championing states’ rights and limited government.

4. Alexander Hamilton/Financial Plan:
   
   

   • As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton developed a financial plan that included creating a national bank, assuming state debts, and promoting industrialization to stabilize the U.S. economy.

5. George Washington/Farewell Address:
   
   

   • The first U.S. President, Washington’s Farewell Address warned against the dangers of political parties and entangling alliances with foreign nations, setting the precedent for future U.S. foreign policy.

Events:

1. French & Indian War (1754-1763):
   
   

   • A conflict between Britain and France in North America, with Native American tribes aligning with both sides. The war ended with British victory but left Britain deeply in debt, leading to increased taxes on the American colonies and contributing to revolutionary sentiments.

2. Stamp Act/Stamp Act Congress (1765):
   
   

   • The Stamp Act was a tax on printed materials in the colonies, leading to widespread protests. The Stamp Act Congress was the first unified resistance, laying the foundation for the push for independence.

3. Committees of Correspondence:
   
   

   • Established in the colonies to facilitate communication and coordinate resistance against British policies, including the Intolerable Acts.

4. Boston Tea Party (1773):
   
   

   • A protest against the Tea Act where colonists, disguised as Native Americans, dumped British tea into Boston Harbor, further escalating tensions with Britain.

5. Battle of Yorktown (1781):
   
   

   • The final battle of the American Revolution, where British General Cornwallis surrendered to American and French forces, effectively ending the war.

6. Articles of Confederation (1781):
   
   

   • The first constitution of the United States, which created a weak central government. Its weaknesses led to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution in 1787.

7. **Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787
   
   

)**:

• An armed uprising by struggling Massachusetts farmers protesting economic injustices and the lack of government response. The rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and contributed to the push for a stronger federal government.

8. Constitutional Convention (1787):
   
   

   • A meeting held to revise the Articles of Confederation, resulting in the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. Key compromises were made on issues such as representation and slavery.

9. Federalist Papers:
   
   

   • A series of essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay promoting the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, arguing for a strong central government.

10. Alien & Sedition Acts (1798):
    
    

• A set of laws passed by the Federalists that restricted immigration and limited freedom of speech, aimed at curbing the influence of French immigrants and the Democratic-Republican opposition.

PERIOD 4: The Early Republic & Antebellum Era (1800-1848)

Themes:

1. Debates over the American System:
   
   

   • Proposed by Henry Clay, the American System aimed to unify the nation through internal improvements like roads and canals, a protective tariff to encourage American manufacturing, and a national bank. These policies reflected the growing role of federal government in promoting economic development, but faced opposition from those who believed in limited federal power.

2. Debates over Federalism vs. States' Rights:
   
   

   • The balance of power between the federal government and the states was a major political issue. Federalists (e.g., Alexander Hamilton) believed in a strong central government, while Democratic-Republicans (e.g., Thomas Jefferson) argued for states' rights. This debate continued throughout the period and intensified with events like the Nullification Crisis and the expansion of slavery.

3. Market Revolution & Developments in Transportation + Communication:
   
   

   • The Market Revolution transformed the economy through innovations in transportation (e.g., Erie Canal, railroads) and communication (e.g., telegraph, steamships). This revolutionized the way goods were produced, transported, and sold, making the economy more interconnected and paving the way for industrialization.

4. Transcendentalism:
   
   

   • A philosophical movement led by figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, which emphasized the importance of individual intuition, nature, and self-reliance. Transcendentalism challenged the materialism of society and advocated for a deeper spiritual connection with the world.

5. The Emergence of Mass Politics:
   
   

   • The early 19th century saw the rise of mass political participation, especially with the Jacksonian Democrats. Political campaigns became more democratic, with greater emphasis on public rallies, the expansion of suffrage (to all white men), and the emergence of a two-party system (Democrats vs. Whigs).

6. Reform Movements of the 1830s & 1840s:
   
   

   • The period saw significant reform movements aimed at addressing social, political, and economic issues:

     • Abolitionism: Led by figures like Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison, this movement sought to end slavery.

     • Women's Rights: Figures like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized the Seneca Falls Convention (1848) to demand equal rights for women, including the right to vote.

     • Temperance Movement: Advocated for the reduction or elimination of alcohol consumption due to its perceived negative effects on society.

People:

1. John Marshall:
   
   

   • Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1801-1835, Marshall played a key role in defining the power of the judiciary and the federal government. His decisions, such as in Marbury v. Madison (1803), established the principle of judicial review, asserting the Court’s role in interpreting the Constitution.

2. Andrew Jackson:
   
   

   • The 7th President of the U.S., Jackson’s presidency marked the rise of populism and the Democratic Party. He is known for expanding suffrage to all white men, his stance on Indian removal (Trail of Tears), and his opposition to the national bank (e.g., Bank War).

3. John C. Calhoun (& Nullification Crisis):
   
   

   • Vice President under Jackson and a strong advocate for states' rights, Calhoun argued that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional, particularly in response to tariffs. The Nullification Crisis of 1832, when South Carolina attempted to nullify a federal tariff, highlighted growing sectional tensions between North and South.

4. Stephen F. Austin:
   
   

   • Known as the "Father of Texas," Austin was a key figure in bringing American settlers into Texas, then part of Mexico. His efforts eventually led to the Texas Revolution and the creation of the independent Republic of Texas.

5. Eli Whitney:
   
   

   • The inventor of the cotton gin, which revolutionized cotton production in the South and led to the expansion of slavery. Whitney is also known for introducing the concept of interchangeable parts, which became crucial to the industrial revolution.

6. Elizabeth Cady Stanton:
   
   

   • A leading figure in the early women's rights movement, Stanton helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention and co-authored the Declaration of Sentiments, demanding equal rights for women, particularly the right to vote.

Events:

1. Revolution of 1800:
   
   

   • The election of 1800, in which Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, was called a "revolution" because it marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties (Federalists to Democratic-Republicans), setting a crucial precedent for U.S. democracy.

2. Jefferson’s First Inaugural Address (1801):
   
   

   • Jefferson’s speech called for national unity and emphasized limited government. His famous phrase “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists” was meant to calm partisan divisions and set the tone for his administration’s more democratic policies.

3. War of 1812:
   
   

   • A war between the U.S. and Britain, largely over British interference with American shipping and the impressment of American sailors. The war ended in a stalemate, but it fostered a sense of American nationalism and marked the decline of the Federalist Party.

4. Era of Good Feelings:
   
   

   • The period following the War of 1812, characterized by political unity under the Democratic-Republicans and relative peace. However, sectional tensions over slavery and economic issues began to grow during this time.

5. Missouri Compromise (1820):
   
   

   • A legislative agreement to maintain the balance of power between free and slave states by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It also established the 36°30’ parallel as the line dividing free and slave territories in the western territories.

6. Monroe Doctrine (1823):
   
   

   • A U.S. foreign policy statement declaring that European powers should not interfere in the Western Hemisphere. In return, the U.S. would not meddle in European affairs. It asserted American influence in the Americas.

7. Trail of Tears (1838):
   
   

   • The forced relocation of Native American tribes, particularly the Cherokee, from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River. Thousands died from exposure, disease, and starvation.

8. Increase in Irish & German Immigration:
   
   

   • In the 1840s and 1850s, large numbers of Irish (due to the potato famine) and Germans (due to political unrest and economic hardship) immigrated to the U.S. This changed the demographic landscape, leading to urbanization and increased cultural diversity.

PERIOD 5: Civil War & Reconstruction (1844-1877)

Themes:

1. Manifest Destiny:
   
   

   • The belief that it was the U.S.'s destiny to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This ideology justified territorial expansion, including the annexation of Texas, the Oregon Trail, and the Mexican-American War.

2. Debates over Slavery:
   
   

   • Slavery became a central issue in American politics, particularly after the acquisition of new territories following the Mexican-American War. The Compromise of 1850 and Kansas-Nebraska Act were attempts to address the issue but ultimately deepened sectional divisions, leading to Bleeding Kansas and the Civil War.

3. Strengths & Weaknesses during the Civil War:
   
   

   • The Union had a larger population, more industrial resources, and better transportation infrastructure, but faced difficulties in managing a long war. The Confederacy had skilled military leaders like Robert E. Lee and fought a defensive war on familiar territory, but struggled with limited resources and international recognition.

4. Women & African Americans during the Civil War:
   
   

   • Women contributed by taking on roles in the workforce and as nurses, while African Americans fought in the Union Army and became a central part of the war effort, particularly after the Emancipation Proclamation (1863).

5. Reconstruction: Successes & Shortcomings:
   
   

   • Reconstruction was aimed at reintegrating the Southern states into the Union and providing rights and assistance to freed slaves. While the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments granted freedom and citizenship, the period saw the rise of Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, and violence by groups like the Ku Klux Klan. Reconstruction ultimately ended in 1877, leading to the rise of Redeemers and the entrenchment of segregation.

People:

1. James K. Polk:
   
   

   • President during the annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War. His expansionist agenda led to the acquisition of large territories in the West, including California, Arizona, and New Mexico.

2. Frederick Douglass:
   
   

   • A former enslaved African American who became a leading abolitionist and an advocate for African American rights and women's suffrage. Douglass’s autobiography and speeches were instrumental in galvanizing the abolition movement.

3. Sojourner Truth:
   
   

An African American abolitionist and women’s rights activist, Truth is best known for her speech, "Ain’t I a Woman?" which advocated for both racial and gender equality.

4. Harriet Tubman / William Still:
   
   

   • Tubman was an escaped enslaved person who helped hundreds of others escape slavery via the Underground Railroad. William Still was a key conductor in the network.

5. William Lloyd Garrison:
   
   

   • A leading abolitionist and publisher of the Liberator, an influential anti-slavery newspaper. He called for the immediate emancipation of enslaved people and helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society.

Events:

1. Mexican-American War (1846-1848):
   
   

   • A conflict sparked by the U.S. annexation of Texas and disputes over the border. It ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which added vast territories (California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico) to the U.S.

2. Compromise of 1850 / 7th of March Speech:
   
   

   • A package of laws aimed at resolving tensions between free and slave states, including the Fugitive Slave Act. Daniel Webster's speech in favor of the Compromise was seen as a call for unity.

3. Kansas-Nebraska Act / Bleeding Kansas:
   
   

   • The Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed settlers to decide the slavery issue in these territories by popular sovereignty, leading to violent conflict between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in Bleeding Kansas.

4. Dred Scott Decision (1857):
   
   

   • The Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott, an enslaved man, was not a citizen and could not sue for his freedom. The decision also stated that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in the territories.

5. Fort Sumter (1861):
   
   

   • The first shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, after Confederate forces attacked the federal garrison. This marked the beginning of the war.

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