Americas
• Aztec Empire: Mesoamerica; 14th–16th century (c. 1345–1521)
• Tenochtitlan: Mesoamerica; founded in 1325
• Incan Empire: South America (Andean region); 15th–16th century (c. 1438–1533)
• Machu Picchu: South America (Peru); 15th century (c. 1450)
Europe and the Mediterranean
• Byzantine Empire: Eastern Europe/Middle East; 4th–15th century (330–1453)
• Constantinople: Europe/Asia (modern Istanbul); founded in 330, fell in 1453
• Italy: Europe; continuous history, notable prominence from Ancient Rome (753 BCE) to Renaissance (14th–17th century)
• Rome: Europe; founded 753 BCE
• France: Europe; origins trace to the Frankish Kingdom (5th century)
• Britain: Europe; prominent since Roman Britain (43 CE) to the modern era
• Netherlands: Europe; emerged as a state in the 16th century
• Portugal: Europe; emerged in the 12th century (1139)
• Spain: Europe; unified in the late 15th century (1492)
Middle East
• Jerusalem: Middle East; ancient city with origins in the 4th millennium BCE
• Abbasid Dynasty: Middle East; 8th–13th century (750–1258)
• Mecca: Arabian Peninsula; ancient city, Islam’s significance began in 7th century
• Arabian Peninsula: Middle East; inhabited since ancient times, 7th-century rise of Islam
• Baghdad: Middle East; founded in 762 (Abbasid capital)
Central Asia and Steppes
• Mongols: Central/Northeast Asia; 13th–14th century (1206–1368)
• Northern Steppes: Central Asia; continuous habitation, Mongol prominence in the 13th century
East Asia
• Tang Dynasty: East Asia (China); 7th–10th century (618–907)
• Song Dynasty: East Asia (China); 10th–13th century (960–1279)
• Ming Dynasty: East Asia (China); 14th–17th century (1368–1644)
• Qing Dynasty: East Asia (China); 17th–20th century (1644–1912)
• Vietnam: Southeast Asia; origins from ancient times, notable as Dai Viet from the 10th century
• Silla Dynasty: East Asia (Korea); 7th–10th century (668–935)
• Japan: East Asia; inhabited since prehistoric times, significant from the Yamato period (c. 250 CE)
Africa
• Niger River: West Africa; continuously significant
• Timbuktu: West Africa (Mali); prominent from the 12th century
• Mali/Ghana: West Africa; Ghana (c. 4th–11th century), Mali (c. 13th–16th century)
• Swahili cities: East Africa; prominent from the 8th century
Indian Ocean and South Asia
• Swahili Coast: East Africa; developed from the 1st millennium CE
• Dutch East India Company: Indian Ocean (Indonesia); 17th century (founded in 1602)
• British East India Company: Indian Ocean (India); 17th–19th century (founded in 1600)
• Mughal Empire: South Asia (India); 16th–19th century (1526–1857)
• Malay Kingdoms: Southeast Asia; prominent from the 1st millennium CE
• Malacca: Southeast Asia; founded in the 15th century (c. 1400)
• East Indies: Southeast Asia; 16th century onward
Americas (Colonial Period)
• Spanish colonial settlements: Americas; began in 1492 (after Columbus)
• Portuguese colonial settlements: South America (Brazil); 16th century onward
• British colonial settlements: North America, Caribbean; 17th century onward
• West Indies: Caribbean; 15th century onward
• Potosi: South America (Bolivia); founded in 1545
• Manila: Southeast Asia (Philippines); founded in 1571
Middle East (Islamic Empires)
• Ottoman Empire: Middle East, Europe, North Africa; 13th–20th century (1299–1922)
• Safavid Empire: Middle East (Persia); 16th–18th century (1501–1736)