Metabolism: Refers to all chemical reactions occurring within organisms, encompassing energy production and utilization.
Growth and Development: Involves an increase in size and complexity over time.
Reproduction: The process of producing new individuals, ensuring species continuity.
Homeostasis: The ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Response to Stimuli: Describes how organisms react to changes in their surroundings.
Adaptation: Evolutionary changes that enhance an organism's survival across generations.
Organization: Refers to the structured arrangement of cells and systems within an organism.
Chemical Level: Fundamental components such as atoms and molecules (e.g., water, proteins).
Cellular Level: The basic unit of life, exemplified by cells (e.g., muscle cells).
Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells working together (e.g., muscle tissue).
Organ Level: Tissues that perform specific functions collectively (e.g., heart).
Organ System Level: Multiple organs functioning together (e.g., circulatory system).
Organism Level: A complete living being comprising various systems (e.g., humans).
Inorganic Compounds: Compounds that lack carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., water, minerals).
Organic Compounds: Compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds (such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids).
Properties:
Polar Molecule: Exhibits uneven charge distribution, leading to polarity.
Universal Solvent: Capable of dissolving a variety of substances.
High Heat Capacity: Helps regulate temperature in organisms.
Cohesion and Adhesion: Contributes to surface tension and capillary action.
Functions in Living Organisms:
Acts as a transport medium (e.g., blood plasma).
Serves as a medium for chemical reactions.
Assists in temperature regulation (e.g., through sweating).
Provides lubrication (e.g., in joints and eyes).
Essential for various biological functions:
Calcium (Ca): Vital for bone and teeth strength, as well as muscle function.
Iron (Fe): Key component of hemoglobin, facilitating oxygen transport.
Phosphorus (P): Critical for DNA, RNA, and energy molecules (ATP).
Magnesium (Mg): Acts as an enzyme activator and is a component of chlorophyll.
Potassium (K) and Sodium (Na): Involved in nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
Definition: Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
Scale Range: 0-14
0-6: Acidic (high H⁺ concentration).
7: Neutral (pure water).
8-14: Alkaline/Basic (low H⁺ concentration).
Biological Importance:
Enzyme activity is dependent on pH levels.
Blood pH (7.35-7.45) is crucial for maintaining bodily functions.
Elements: Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
Types:
Monosaccharides: Single sugar molecules (e.g., glucose, fructose).
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides linked together (e.g., sucrose, lactose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Functions:
Serve as a primary energy source.
Provide structural support (e.g., cellulose in plant cell walls).
Elements: Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
Types:
Fats and Oils: Function as energy storage.
Phospholipids: Essential for cell membrane structure.
Steroids: Includes hormones (e.g., cholesterol).
Functions:
Long-term energy storage.
Provide insulation and protection.
Are integral components of cell membranes.
Elements: Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N).
Building Blocks: Made up of amino acids.
Types and Functions:
Structural Proteins: Provide support (e.g., collagen).
Enzymes: Catalyze and speed up chemical reactions.
Transport Proteins: Carry substances throughout the body (e.g., hemoglobin).
Hormones: Regulate various physiological processes (e.g., insulin).
Antibodies: Play a crucial role in the immune response.
Test for Starch:
Reagent: Iodine solution.
Positive Result: Blue-black color.
Test for Glucose:
Reagent: Benedict’s solution.
Positive Result: Brick-red precipitate (after heating).
Test for Proteins:
Reagent: Biuret solution.
Positive Result: Purple color.
Test for Lipids:
Reagent: Ethanol and water.
Positive Result: Milky-white emulsion.