BIOL 2113 Exam 1 Study Guide - Summer 2025

Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of body structure.
• Physiology: The study of body function.

Planes of the Body

• Frontal: Divides the body into front and back sections.
• Sagittal: Divides the body into left and right sections.
• Transverse: Divides the body into top and bottom sections.

Anatomical Position

• Standing upright, facing forward, with palms facing out.

Body Cavities and Organs

• Cranial cavity: Contains the brain.
• Vertebral cavity: Contains the spinal cord.
• Thoracic cavity: Contains the heart and lungs.
• Abdominal cavity: Contains the stomach, liver, and intestines.
• Pelvic cavity: Contains the bladder and reproductive organs.

Abdominopelvic Regions

• Right Hypochondriac region: The upper right region of the abdomen.
• Epigastric region: The upper middle region of the abdomen.
• Left Hypochondriac region: The upper left region of the abdomen.
• Right Lumbar region: The middle right region of the abdomen.
• Umbilical region: The central region of the abdomen around the navel.
• Left Lumbar region: The middle left region of the abdomen.
• Right Iliac region: The lower right region of the abdomen.
• Hypogastric region: The lower middle region of the abdomen.
• Left Iliac region: The lower left region of the abdomen.

Quadrants

• RUQ: Right Upper Quadrant
• LUQ: Left Upper Quadrant
• RLQ: Right Lower Quadrant
• LLQ: Left Lower Quadrant

Directional Terms

• Ears are lateral to cheeks (farther away from the midline).
• Nose is medial to cheeks (closer to the midline).
• Wrist is distal to elbow (farther from the point of attachment).
• Knee is proximal to ankle (closer to the point of attachment).
• Heart is medial to lungs.
• Kidneys are posterior to intestines (located behind).

Afferent and Efferent Pathways

• Afferent pathway: Sensory pathway leading to the control center.
• Efferent pathway: Motor pathway leading from the control center to the effector.

Homeostasis

• Defined as a stable internal environment.

Octet Rule

• Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a full outer shell of 8 electrons.

Chemical Bonds

• Bonds involve the use of electrons.

Atomic Number

• Equals the number of protons in an atom.

Isotopes

• Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Inert Elements

• Elements with a full outer shell are inert (unreactive).

Covalent Bonds

• Single covalent bond: Involves the sharing of 2 electrons.

Bond Types

• Covalent bond: Electrons are shared between atoms.
• Ionic bond: Electrons are transferred between atoms.
• Hydrogen bond: Weak bond between polar molecules.

Anabolism and Catabolism

• Anabolic processes: Build up complex molecules.
• Catabolic processes: Break down complex molecules.

Electron Shells

• The first electron shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.

Avogadro's Number

• Avogadro's number: 6.022 \times 10^{23}

Organic Molecules

• Organic molecules always contain carbon.

Monomers

• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides.
• Proteins are made of amino acids.
• Carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides.
• Lipids are made of fatty acids and glycerol.

Peptide Bonds

• Peptide bonds join amino acids together to form proteins.

Triglycerides

• Triglyceride = 1 glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acids.

Unsaturated and Saturated Fats

• Unsaturated fats: Liquid at room temperature, contain double bonds.
• Saturated fats: Solid at room temperature, lack double bonds.

Protein Structure

• Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids.
• Secondary structure: Alpha helix or beta sheet.
• Tertiary structure: Three-dimensional folding of a protein.
• Quaternary structure: Multiple polypeptide chains.

Golgi Body

• Golgi body: Packages proteins for transport.

Passive Transport

• Passive transport: Movement of substances from high to low concentration (down the concentration gradient).

Active Transport

• Active transport: Requires ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient.

Facilitated Diffusion

• Channel-mediated: Uses pores for transport.
• Carrier-mediated: Involves a change in the shape of the carrier protein.

Decomposition and Hydrolysis

• Decomposition: Breaks down molecules.
• Hydrolysis: A type of decomposition reaction.

Ribosomes

• Ribosomes are responsible for making proteins.

Cell Cycle

• G1 phase: Growth phase.
• S phase: DNA replication.
• G2 phase: Preparation for mitosis.
• M phase: Mitosis (cell division).

Interphase

• Interphase = G1 + S + G2 phases.

G1 Checkpoint

• If the G1 checkpoint fails, the cell cycle stops or the cell undergoes destruction.

DNA Replication

• Occurs in the nucleus.

DNA Structure

• DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Phospholipid Bilayer

• Acts as a selective barrier in the cell membrane.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

• Endocytosis: Movement of substances into the cell.
• Exocytosis: Movement of substances out of the cell.