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Page 1: The Russian Revolution of 1905

• Context: 1903 Russia's imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea led to conflict with Japan.

  • Tsar Nicholas II ignored protests, resulting in Japan attacking Port Arthur (Feb 1904).

  • Japan achieved multiple victories, leading to a humiliating defeat for Russia; peace brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt (Sep 1905).

• Revolutionary Underpinnings:

  • Military failures ignited political turmoil at home:

    • Desire for a liberal government from the business class.

    • Urban workers organized a labor movement.

    • Peasants faced poverty post-emancipation.

    • Minorities sought self-rule.

• Bloody Sunday (Jan 1905):

  • Peaceful protest in St. Petersburg ended in mass murder by troops, inciting widespread outrage.

• General Strikes:

  • By summer 1905, strikes, uprisings, and military mutinies proliferated nationwide.

  • October Revolution resulted in a general strike that led to government concessions.

• October Manifesto (1905):

  • Granted civil rights and promised a Duma (parliament) with legislative power.

  • Division among opposition factions weakened unified resistance to the Tsar.

• Fundamental Laws (May 1906):

  • New constitution with Tsar retaining significant powers (control over military and foreign affairs).

  • Duma had limited authority, with an absolute veto vested in the Tsar.

• Stolypin’s Reforms:

  • Pyotr Stolypin’s agrarian reforms aimed to modernize and stimulate economic growth amid oppression of radicals.

  • Harsh repressions resulted in thousands executed – dubbed "Stolypin's necktie."

Page 2: Reform and Readjustment in the Ottoman Empire

• Ottoman Transformation Under Pressure:

  • Economic and political reforms initiated by liberal officials in response to European competition (Tanzimat era).

  • Abdul Mejid’s Imperial Rescript of 1856 aimed at modernization and equality before the law.

• Economic Shifts:

  • Emphasis on free trade harmed imperial revenues and increased foreign control.

  • By 1851, Ottoman state spiraled into debt, culminating in bankruptcy two decades later.

• Rise of Nationalism:

  • Reforms failed to quell nationalistic fervor, leading to independence movements in Greece and Serbia.

  • Abdülhamid II carried out authoritarian rule, stifling reform attempts and unable to elude foreign encroachment.

• Young Turks Movement (1908):

  • Aimed to revitalize the empire and push for modernization post-Abdülhamid's reign.

Page 3: The Responsive National State and Germany Post-1871

• Nation-State Emergence:

  • New political structures emerged post-1871, centered on mass politics and citizen loyalty.

• Germany's Federal System:

  • Formation of the German Empire under a federal structure (Prussia and 24 states).

  • Bismarck leveraged the Reichstag despite often sidelining it for policy goals.

• Social Welfare Program Development:

  • Bismarck enacted social security laws as a strategy to undermine the Social Democratic Party (SPD).

• Wilhelm II's Era (1890-onward):

  • Shift towards aggressive foreign policies amid domestic unrest; SPD maintained electoral strength despite state measures.

Page 4: France under the Third Republic

• Post-Franco-Prussian War Division:

  • Emergence of the Paris Commune, reflecting deep national and class divisions.

  • Thiers and the National Assembly crushed the Commune, establishing the Third Republic.

• Republic Consolidation:

  • Compromise among factions led to republican government stability.

  • Legislative reforms bolstered public education, emphasizing secularism.

• Challenges:

  • The Dreyfus Affair renewed tensions between church and state.

  • Legislative actions strengthened secular education amid rising social movements.

Page 5: Conflicting Nationalism in the Austro-Hungarian Empire

• Nationalism's Role in Deterioration:

  • Failed attempts to centralize control in multi-ethnic Austro-Hungarian territories.

  • The dual monarchy provided Magyar elites with nearly autonomous governance, leading to resentment among other ethnic groups.

• Political Fragmentation:

  • Government struggled to achieve stability due to rising nationalist sentiments.

• Great Britain’s Political Changes:

  • Expansion of social welfare measures from 1906 to 1914 amidst rising nationalism in Ireland.

  • Tension between Protestants and Catholics in Ireland delayed home rule movement and highlighted conflicting loyalties.