Medical Terminology for Health Professionals - Chapter 2 Flashcards

Anatomical Reference Systems

• Used to describe the locations of body structures.

• Include:

  • Body planes

  • Body directions

  • Body cavities

  • Structural units

• Body system: When body parts work together to perform a related function.

Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of body structures.

  • Anatomical refers to anatomy.

• Physiology: Study of the functions of body structures.

  • Physi- means nature or physical.

  • -ology means study of.

• Anatomical Position:

  • Body standing erect, facing forward.

  • Arms at the sides with palms facing forward.

Body Planes

• Imaginary vertical and horizontal lines dividing the body.

• Aligned to anatomical position.

• Vertical Planes:

  • Sagittal: Divides the body into unequal left and right portions.

  • Midsagittal (Midline): Sagittal plane dividing the body into equal left and right halves.

  • Frontal (Coronal): Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

• Horizontal Plane:

  • Transverse: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

Body Direction Terms

• Describe relative location of body sections or organs using contrasting pairs.

  • Ventral: Front, or belly side (opposite of dorsal).

  • Dorsal: Back of the organ or body (opposite of ventral).

  • Cephalic: Toward the head (opposite of caudal).

  • Caudal: Toward the lower part of the body (opposite of cephalic).

  • Anterior: Situated in the front (opposite of posterior).

  • Posterior: Situated in the back (opposite of anterior).

  • Superior: Uppermost, above, or toward the head (opposite of inferior).

  • Inferior: Lowermost, below, or toward the feet (opposite of superior).

  • Proximal: Nearest the midline or beginning of a body structure (opposite of distal).

  • Distal: Farthest from the midline or beginning of a body structure (opposite of proximal).

  • Medial: Toward, or nearer, the midline (opposite of lateral).

  • Lateral: Toward, or nearer, the side of the body, away from the midline (opposite of medial).

Major Body Cavities

• Two major cavities: dorsal (back) and ventral (front).

• Spaces containing and protecting internal organs.

• Dorsal Cavity :

  • Located along the back of the body and head.

  • Contains organs of the nervous system which coordinates body functions.

  • Divisions:

    • Cranial Cavity: Within the skull; protects the brain.

    • Spinal Cavity: Within the spinal column; protects the spinal cord.

• Ventral Cavity:

  • Located along the front of the body.

  • Contains organs that sustain homeostasis.

  • Divisions:

    • Thoracic Cavity: Chest cavity or thorax.

    • Diaphragm: Muscle separating thoracic and abdominal cavities.

    • Abdominal Cavity: Contains major digestive organs.

    • Pelvic Cavity: Space formed by hip bones; contains reproductive and excretory organs.

    • Abdominopelvic Cavity: Refers to the abdominal and pelvic cavities as a single unit.

    • Inguinal: Lower area of the abdomen, including the groin.

Regions of the Thorax and Abdomen

• Nine parts:

  • Right and left hypochondriac regions: Covered by the lower ribs.

  • Epigastric region: Located above the stomach.

  • Right and left lumbar regions: Located near the inward curve of the spine.

  • Umbilical region: Surrounds the umbilicus (belly button or navel).

  • Right and left iliac regions: Located near the hip bones.

  • Hypogastric region: Located below the stomach.

Quadrants of the Abdomen

• Four quadrants:

  • Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

  • Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

  • Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

  • Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

Peritoneum

• Parietal peritoneum: Outer layer lining the abdominal wall.

• Mesentery: Fused double layer of parietal peritoneum attaching intestine to the abdominal wall.

• Visceral peritoneum: Inner layer surrounding abdominal organs.

• Retroperitoneal: Located behind the peritoneum.

• Peritonitis: Inflammation of the peritoneum.

Structures of the Body

• Increasingly complex structural units: cells, tissues, organs, and body systems.

• Form the complete body and enable its function.

Cells

• Basic structural and functional units.

• Specialized and grouped into tissues and organs.

• Cytology: Study of cell anatomy, physiology, pathology, and chemistry.

• Cytologist: Specialist in cell study and analysis.

• Cell membrane: Tissue surrounding and protecting cell contents.

• Cytoplasm: Material within the cell membrane, not part of the nucleus.

• Nucleus: Structure within the cell, surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

  • Functions:

    • Controls cell activities.

    • Helps the cell divide

Stem Cells

• Unspecialized cells that renew themselves through cell division.

• Can transform into cells with special functions under certain conditions.

• Adult Stem Cells (Somatic Stem Cells):

  • Undifferentiated cells among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ.

  • Primary role is to maintain and repair tissue.

  • Undifferentiated: Not having a specialized function or structure.

  • Differentiated: Having a specialized function or structure.

• Embryonic Stem Cells:

  • Undifferentiated cells unlike any specific adult cell.

  • Can form any adult cell.

  • Embryonic refers to an embryo, a developing fetus during its first eight weeks in the womb

  • Can proliferate indefinitely in a lab.

  • More primitive than adult stem cells.

  • Do not require as perfect a match as adult stem cell transplants.

  • Come from cord blood found in the umbilical cord and placenta.

  • Harvested at birth without danger to mother or child.

  • Can also be obtained from surplus embryos produced by in vitro (test tube) fertilization.

• Stem Cell Therapy (Regenerative Medicine):

  • Potential uses to heal injuries and treat diseases.

  • Cells usually harvested from hematopoietic (blood forming) tissue of the bone marrow.

  • Can be harvested from the patient’s own bone marrow or transplanted from one individual to another

  • Possibility of rejection (graft-versus-host disease) unless there is an excellent match between the donor and recipient

Genetics

Dominant and Recessive Genes

• Individuals receive two genes for each trait: one from each parent.

• Dominant Gene:

  • Inherited from either parent.

  • Offspring will inherit that genetic condition or characteristic.

  • Examples: Freckles and Huntington’s disease.

• Recessive Gene:

  • Inherited from both parents.

  • Offspring will have that condition.

  • Example: Sickle cell anemia.

• Recessive gene from one parent, normal gene from the other: offspring will not have the condition.

Human Genome

• Genome: Complete set of genetic information of an organism.

• Human Genome Project:

  • Studied genetic code for individual people.

  • Found it is more than 99% identical among humans.

  • First complete mapping published in 2003 (took 13 years).

  • Scientists now study proteins encoded by the sequence of the 25,000 genes

Chromosomes

• Genetic structure within the nucleus of each cell.

• Made of DNA molecules containing the body’s genes.

• Somatic Cell:

  • Any cell except gametes (sex cells).

  • Contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.

  • 22 identical pairs, plus XX (female) or XY (male) pair.

• Gamete (Sex Cell):

  • Sperm or egg.

  • Only type of cell with 23 single chromosomes.

  • Newly formed offspring receives 23 chromosomes from each parent, totaling 46.

  • X or Y chromosome from the father determines the sex of the child.

DNA

• Contains thousands of genes.

• Provides information for heredity, physical appearance, disease risks, and other traits.

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):

  • Main component of chromosomes.

  • Carries the body’s genetic information.

  • Found in all cells except erythrocytes (red blood cells).

  • Two spiraling strands forming a double helix.

  • No two DNA patterns are exactly the same, except in identical twins.

  • Small sample can identify individuals for criminal investigations, paternity suits, or genealogical research.

Genetic Mutation

• Change in the sequence of a DNA molecule.

• Somatic Cell Mutation:

  • Change within body cells.

  • Affects the individual but is not transmitted to the next generation.

• Gametic Cell Mutation:

  • Change within genes in a gamete (sex cell).

  • Can be transmitted to children.

• Genetic Engineering:

  • Manipulating or splicing genes for scientific/medical purposes.

  • Example: Production of human insulin from modified bacteria.

Genetic Disorders

• Pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene.

• Also known as a hereditary disease.

• Examples: Cystic fibrosis (CF), Down syndrome (DS), Fragile X syndrome, Hemophilia, Muscular dystrophy, Phenylketonuria (PKU).

Tissues

• Group/layer of specialized cells performing specific functions.

• Histology: Study of tissue structure, composition, and function.

• Histologist: Non-physician specialist in tissue study.

• Four main types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

• Protective covering for internal/external body surfaces.

• Forms glands.

• Epithelium:

  • Forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes.

• Endothelium:

  • Lines blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands, and organs.

Connective Tissue

• Supports and connects organs and other body tissues.

• Four kinds:

  • Dense Connective Tissues: Form joints and body framework (e.g., bone and cartilage).

  • Adipose Tissue (Fat): Protective padding, insulation, and support.

  • Loose Connective Tissue: Holds organs in place and binds tissues together.

  • Fluid Connective Tissues: Blood and lymph; transport nutrients and waste.

Muscle Tissue

• Cells with specialized ability to contract and relax.

Nerve Tissue

• Cells specialized to react to stimuli and conduct electrical impulses.

Pathology of Tissue Formation

• Disorders frequently due to unknown causes, occur before birth or later in life.

• Incomplete Tissue Formation:

  • aplasia

  • hypoplasia

• Abnormal Tissue Formation:

  • Anaplasia: Change in cell structure and orientation.

  • Dysplasia: Abnormal development or growth of cells.

  • Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ.

  • Hypertrophy: Increase in the bulk of a body part or organ due to an increase in size, but not number, of cells in tissues.

Glands

• Group of specialized epithelial cells producing secretions.

• Secretion: Substance produced by a gland.

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

• Endocrine Glands: Produce hormones and do not have ducts.

Pathology and Procedures of the Glands

• Word root aden means gland.

• Examples of pathologies:

  • Adenitis: Inflammation of a gland.

  • Adenocarcinoma: Malignant tumor originating in glands.

  • Adenoma: Benign tumor starting in epithelial tissue of a gland or glandlike structure.

  • Adenosis: Any disease or condition of a gland.

Body Systems and Related Organs

• Organ: Somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function.

• Body systems: Related tissues and organs with specialized functions.

• Examples:

  • Skeletal system: bones, joints, and cartilage.

  • Lymphatic system: lymph, lymphatic vessels, and lymph nodes.

  • Immune system: tonsils, spleen, thymus, skin, and specialized blood cells.

  • Special senses: eyes and ears.

  • Integumentary system: skin, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.

Pathology

• Study of disease: its nature, cause, and changes in structure and function.

• Also means a condition produced by disease.

• Pathologist: Physician specializing in laboratory analysis of diseased tissue samples.

• Etiology: Study of the causes of diseases or abnormal conditions.

Disease Transmission

• Pathogen: Disease-producing microorganism (e.g., virus).

• Communicable Disease: Condition transmitted from one person to another.

• Types of Disease Transmission:

  • Direct Transmission: Human-to-human contact or exchange of bodily fluids.

  • Bloodborne Transmission: Infected blood or other bodily fluids entering the bloodstream.

    • Examples: HIV, hepatitis B, STDs.

  • Droplet Transmission: Infected respiratory droplets (coughing or sneezing).

    • Examples: Measles, cold, COVID-19, and flu

    • Face mask limits transmission.

  • Indirect Contact Transmission: Contact with a contaminated surface.

    • Frequent hand washing is essential for prevention.

  • Airborne Transmission: Contact with pathogens floating in the air.

    • Microparticles remain airborne for a long period of time after someone coughs or sneezes

    • Travel up to 1 meter and expose someone even after the infected person is gone

    • Examples: Tuberculosis, measles, COVID-19, and chicken pox.

  • Food-borne and Waterborne Transmission: Consuming contaminated food or water (fecal-oral transmission).

  • Vector-borne Transmission: Insect bite.

    • Spread through blood-sucking vectors (flies, mites, fleas, and ticks).

    • Mosquitoes are the most common vectors; they transmit malaria and West Nile virus.

Outbreaks of Diseases

• Epidemiologist: Specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population group.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): national health protection agency; tracks outbreaks of diseases across the country and works to help prevent their spread

• Endemic: Ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group, or area.

  • Example: The common cold.

• Epidemic: Sudden, widespread outbreak of a disease within a specific population group or area.

• Pandemic: Outbreak of a disease occurring over a large geographic area, possibly worldwide.

  • Examples: Worldwide spread of HIV and COVID-19.

Types of Diseases

• Organic Disorder: Produces symptoms that are detectable physical changes in the body

  • Example: Varicella (chickenpox).

• Functional Disorder: Produces physical symptoms for which no disease or organic cause can be identified.

  • Example: Chronic fatigue syndrome.

• Iatrogenic Illness: Unfavorable response due to prescribed medical treatment.

  • Example: Severe burns from radiation therapy.

• Idiopathic Disease: Disease without a known cause.

• Infectious Disease: Illness caused by living pathogenic organisms.

  • Examples: Diseases caused by bacteria and viruses.

• Nosocomial Infection (Hospital-Acquired Infection - HAI): Disease acquired in a hospital or clinical setting.

  • Examples: MRSA infections.

Syndrome

• Signs and symptoms that occur together as part of a specific disease process.

• Some conditions include this term in their name.

  • Examples: Down syndrome and fetal alcohol syndrome.

• Metabolic Syndrome: Common medical condition characterized by risk factors for developing heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

  • Factors: Elevated blood pressure, central adiposity (excessive fat in the abdomen), high insulin levels in the blood, and high cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

Congenital Disorders

• Abnormal conditions at the time of birth.

• Developmental disorders before birth (birth defects): anomaly,or malformation

  • Examples: absence of a limb or presence of an extra toe

• Prenatal Risk Factors:

  • Mother’s health (e.g., rubella infection).

  • Behavior (e.g., alcohol consumption).

  • Prenatal care (e.g., premature delivery or low-birth-weight baby).

• Premature Birth: Before 37th week

  • Examples: breathing difficulties and heart problems

• Injuries During Birth Process:

  • Result from trauma during labor or delivery.

  • Most injuries (e.g., clavicle fractures) heal quickly.

Aging and Death

• Aging: Normal progression of the life cycle ending in death.

  • Higher risk of chronic or fatal health problems in later life.

• Geriatrics/Gerontology: Study of medical problems and care of older people.

• Postmortem: Means after death

• Postmortem Examination (Autopsy): Usually conducted to determine the cause of death. Also a way of evaluating the presence of disease and the effectiveness of treatment

Advance Directives

• Documents providing guidance for treatment preferences and health care decision-makers.

• Health Care Proxy (HCP) / Durable Power of Attorney: Appoints a trusted person to make treatment decisions.

• Living Will / Physician’s Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment (POLST): Statement of wishes for end-of-life medical care.

• Do Not Resuscitate Order (DNR) / No Code / Allow Natural Death: Person does not wish to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

Abbreviations Related to the Human Body in Health and Disease

• A & P = anatomy and physiology

• DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid

• GP = general practitioner

• HD = Huntington’s disease

• LLQ = left lower quadrant

• LUQ = left upper quadrant

• PA = physician assistant

• RLQ = right lower quadrant

• RUQ = right upper quadrant