Untitled Flashcards Set

argument - A logical way of demonstrating that the writer’s claim, belief, position or conclusion is reasonable and worth considering. In an argument (unlike persuasion) you are not trying to win over (convert) the opposition but to simply state your position on an issue of some sort. An argument will usually include a claim (a conclusion), premises (reasons for your conclusion), qualifiers (slight limitations of your claim), support (evidence and backing), analysis and/or justification (impact/warrants), a presentation of counterclaims and possible concessions and rebuttals. 

Conclusion/Claim - the main point or idea that the argument is trying to establish. It's the statement that the premises support, and it's often used to promote a specific belief or point of view. Often called claim or  position. 

Example: Colleges should make every effort to create green campuses because by doing so they will not only [improve their own educational environment] and therefore [ensure their own institution's survival], but they will also [help combat the global climate crisis].

Types of Conclusions/Claims 

• Factual Claims

  • Definition - Statements that assert a condition or phenomenon exists, has existed, or will exist. These claims can be verified or falsified through evidence or observation.

  • Example - "The Earth revolves around the Sun."

• Value Claims

  • Definition - Statements that evaluate or judge something as good or bad, right or wrong, or more or less valuable. These claims are often subjective and based on personal or societal values.

  • Example - "Honesty is the most important quality in a person."

• Policy Claims

  • Definition - Statements advocating for or against a particular course of action or policy. These claims often suggest what should or should not be done.

  • Example - "The government should implement stricter environmental regulations."

• Definitional Claims

  • Definition - Statements that assert the meaning or classification of a term or concept. These claims often involve arguments over the proper interpretation or categorization of something.

  • Example -  "The lottery is really a tax on the poor"

• Comparative Claims

  • Definition - Statements that compare two or more items, ideas, or situations to establish a relationship of superiority, equality, or difference.

  • Example - "Online education is more effective than traditional classroom education."

• Interpretative Claims

  • Definition - Statements that provide an interpretation or explanation of a particular text, artwork, event, or phenomenon. These claims are often used in literary analysis, art criticism, or historical analysis.

  • Example - "Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a critique of political corruption."

• Moral or Ethical Claims

  • Definition - Statements that assert what is morally right or wrong. These claims are often based on ethical principles (ideologies) or moral philosophies.

  • Example - "Euthanasia is morally acceptable in certain circumstances."

• Existential Claims

  • Definition - Statements that assert the existence or non-existence of something.

  • Example - "God exists."

• Anecdotal Claims

  • Definition - Statements based on personal experience or isolated examples rather than scientific evidence or statistics.

  • Example - "My grandmother smoked all her life and lived to be 90, so smoking isn’t that bad."

Premises/Contentions  - a statement that supports or justifies a conclusion in an argument. Premises are the ideas or concepts that an argument is based on. (note: this is often your reason or rationale for your conclusion. In debate, your premises are called your contentions or minor claims)

Example: Colleges should make every effort to create green campuses because by doing so they will not only [improve their own educational environment] and therefore [ensure their own institution's survival], but they will also [help  combat the global climate crisis].

Evidence - support for the reasons offered and helps compel audiences to accept claims. Often called data, grounds, support 

• Quantitative Evidence - evidence that refers to data that can be measured, counted, or expressed in numerical values, like statistics, percentages, survey results, or experimental data, used to support a claim with concrete facts and figures rather than subjective opinions

• Qualitative Evidence - descriptive, non-numerical data that is based on observations, experiences, opinions, or interpretations, often presented in the form of quotes, stories, anecdotes, or testimonials, used to support a claim by providing insights into people's feelings, thoughts, and perspectives on a topic rather than relying on statistics or measurable data; essentially, it helps illustrate a point through narrative and context.

• Examples/Generalizations: An "argument through examples" (also called "argument by example") is a method of supporting a claim by providing specific instances or examples that illustrate the point being made, essentially using concrete evidence to demonstrate the validity of a broader statement; it's a way of arguing by showing how a general principle applies in real-world situations. 

• Analogies: An "argument through analogy" is a type of argument where someone claims that because two things are similar in certain ways, they are likely to be similar in another way as well, using the known similarities to infer a new, unobserved similarity; essentially, comparing one thing to another to support a conclusion about the first thing based on their shared characteristics. 

• Authority: An argument from authority is a form of evidence and/or argument in which the opinion of an authority figure (or figures) is used as evidence to support an argument.

• Causality: An argument through causality, also called a "causal argument," is a type of evidence and/or argument that aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two events or conditions, essentially claiming that one thing directly led to another by presenting evidence to demonstrate this connection; it answers the question "why did this happen?" by identifying the cause behind an event or outcome. 

Warrants/Impact/Analysis/Commentary - The reasons and/or justifications why the evidence supports and/or is important to your argument (note: this is often called reasoning or analysis)

• Impact Chain - a structured way of presenting evidence or reasoning where you demonstrate a series of connected effects, showing how one action or event leads to another, ultimately culminating in a significant impact or outcome that supports your main argument; essentially, it's a logical chain of cause and effect used to build a compelling case for your position. 

Backing - Additional evidence (quantitative or qualitative) to support your Impact

Counterclaim - the opposing argument to the writer's position in an argumentative essay. 

Acknowledgement - the act of recognizing and responding to different points of view in an argument. It can help strengthen an argument and build credibility with the audience.

Concession (n) - an argumentative strategy where a writer or speaker gives into (concedes) a portion of the opposition's argument. It is a way to show that the writer or speaker can see the other side's point of view before countering it but also admitting .

Rebuttal - a response that aims to directly contradict or weaken an opposing argument by presenting evidence or reasoning that shows why the opposing viewpoint is flawed or incorrect; essentially, it's a counterargument used to defend your own position against someone else's claim.

Qualifier - a word or phrase that limits a claim in an argument to indicate that it might not be true in all situations. Qualifiers help the audience understand that the author is aware that their claim might not always be valid, and that they don't expect their ideas to work all the time. Such words include some, possibly, many, usually, perhaps