Unit 2 AP Comp Gov

Systems of Government

• All systems of government contain the following institutions:

  • The executive is the chief political power in a state, usually a president or a prime minister.

  • The bureaucracy is a large set of unelected officials who implement the law.

    • The president gets to choose these people.

  • The legislature is a group of lawmakers that passes laws and represents citizens. 

  • The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets the law and applies it to individual cases.

    • The power of the judiciary varies from state to state.

Parliamentary Systems

• A parliamentary system is a system in which the executive and legislature are fused.

  • A member of parliament (MP) is a person elected to serve in the legislature.

  • The prime minister (PM) is the head of government in a parliamentary system, who is a member of the legislature and is selected by the majority party.

• Coalition government occurs when two or more parties agree to work together to form a majority and select the PM.

• One method to check the power of the PM is through a vote of confidence.

  • A vote of no confidence is a vote by parliament to remove a government (the prime minister and cabinet) from power. 

Presidential Systems

• A presidential system is a system in which the executive and the legislature are elected independently and have separate and independent powers.

  • Presidential systems use separation of powers, which is a division of power among the major branches of government.

  • Since the executive (usually called a president) and the legislature are elected separately, divided government can occur. Divided government is when one or both houses of the legislature are controlled by a political party other than the party of the president. 

Semi-Presidential Systems

• A Semi-presidential system is a system that divides executive power between a directly elected president and a prime minister.

  • Powers for each executive are spelled out in the constitution.

  • Russia is a semi-presidential system.

Comparing Systems of Government 

• Presidential systems are less likely to pass policy.

  • Divided government

  • Executive and legislature share legitimacy because they are elected independently

• Parliamentary systems can suffer from too many parties in the legislature, which may result in more coalition governments. 

Section 4.2: Executives

Term Limits

• Some systems use term limits, which are restrictions on the number of terms the executive may serve.

  • Term limits are used to 

    • Prevent a consolidation of power.

    • Prevent personalized rule and dictatorships.

  • Term limits have disadvantages such as

    • Preventing a popular executive from continuing to serve.

    • Reducing policy continuity.

    • Causing the executive to rush to pass policies before leaving office.

  • A term of office is a specific number of years that an executive can serve

    • Presidential systems have fixed terms of office

    • Parliamentary systems have flexible terms of office

Removing an Executive

• All three systems have methods by which the executive can be removed.

  • Removal is easier in parliamentary systems because

    • The prime minister could lose the legislative election (although this is unlikely). 

    • He or she can be forced to resign by the majority party.

    • A vote of no confidence can remove the government.

  • More difficult in a presidential system because impeachment is difficult

    • Impeachment is the process of removing a president from office before the end of his or her term.

    • Removal usually requires a supermajority vote.

    • Separation of powers makes the process difficult.

Bureaucracies

• Bureaucracies implement policy as part of the executive branch

  • In well functioning bureaucracies, most members are chosen based on their qualifications.

  • In corrupt countries, the bureaucracy is a source of graft and jobs of those in power.

  • The bureaucracy is often led by a cabinet which consists of the heads of major departments or ministries in the bureaucracy.

  • Legislative oversight is the power of the legislature to hold cabinet officials and members of the bureaucracy accountable for their actions and policies.

Section 4.3-Legislative

Legislative Structures

• Two basic ways to structure a legislature

  • A unicameral legislature is a legislature with one chamber.

    • Advantages include passing policy quickly, less compromise is needed.

    • Authoritarian states often have unicameral legislatures

      • Limits competition

  • A bicameral legislature has two chambers

    • The lower chamber often has more power than the upper chamber.

      • The chambers often have different powers

      • Often used in federal systems

        • The upper chamber represents subnational government interests.

      • Advantages include a more deliberative policy process

      • Disadvantages include gridlock

Legislative Independence

• Legislative independence is an important part of democratic regimes.

  • Can engage in legislative oversight

  • Remove the executive 

• Legislature in authoritarian regimes exist to:

  • Provide stability

  • Convey information about local problems

  • Create legitimacy

FRQ Practice

1. According to my knowledge of unicameral legislatures it’s a legislature that only has one chamber that creates the policies and rules.

2. An authoritarian state would have a unicameral legislature because it allows them to have more power over their country and it limits competition. For example in Russia, there’s a unicameral legislature so Putin can be the one making the decisions and ruling. 

3. The legislature in a democratic system serves as a check on the executive because since it’s a bicameral legislature and has two chambers it's important to make sure the executive isn’t taking all the power for themselves. 

Section 4.4-Judiciaries

Judicial Systems

• The highest court in a democratic regime usually has the power of judicial review.

  • The United Kingdom is an exception.

• There are two types of legal systems.

  • Common law is a legal system in which previous written opinions serve as precedent for future cases.

  • Case law is a legal system in which judges follow the law written by the legislature, and previous court decisions do not serve as precedent. 

• Judicial independence is the ability of judges to decide cases according to the law, free of interference from politically powerful officials or other institutions.

  • Independent judiciaries are important because they can

    • Protect minority rights

    • Check the power of the executive and legislature

• Judiciaries cannot enforce their decisions. They are reliant on the executive and legislative branches for enforcement.

United Kingdom

Legitimacy

• Traditional-Gradualism

• Rational Legal-democratic constitution and rule of law

• Unwritten Constitution-Magna Carta, English Bill of Rights, common law, legal codes, and customs.

Rational-Legal Authority: Rational-Legal authority is a form of government in which decisions are made based on laws and regulations, rather than on the personal whims of those in power.

Political Culture: Mult-nationalism

• The UK is divided into four nations

  • England 

  • Scotland

  • Wales 

  • Northern Ireland

England

• Largest region of Great Britain

• Makes up ⅔ of the land mass

• English have dominated the other nationalities historically, and still hold a disproportionate share of political power

Scotland

• Strong sense of national identity

• Has its own flag

• Scottish National Assembly (devolution)

• Scottish National Party

• Referendum on leaving the UK defeated by voters in 2014

Wales

• Plaid Cymru

• Strong sense of national pride reflected in its flag and Welsh language

• Welsh National Assembly (devolution)

Northern Ireland

• The Irish Republican Army (IRA) used terrorism against British officials and citizens 

• Sinn Fein-political party of the IRA

• Under the 1999 Good Friday Agreement, the IRA decommissioned its weapons in exchange for some self rule

• Northern Ireland Assembly (devolution)

Devolution

• In 1999, referendums in Scotland and Wales successfully passed, and each established their own regional assemblies: power of taxation, education, and economic planning.

• London has a mayor who makes policies for the city.

• British government is a unitary system (centralized control)

Ethnic Minorities

• Make up about 13% of the British population 

• Ethnic minority representation in Parliament has gradually increased, the ethnic minorities are underrepresented

Labour Party

• Early history of the party was defined by controversial Clause 4 that called for nationalization of the “commanding heights” of British industry

• Growing moderation of the Labour Party was reflected by removal of Clause 4 in early 1990s

• Party on the left

• Led by PM Sir Keir Starmer

Conservative Party

• Party on the right

• Support the free market, but also support the welfare state and NHS (National Health Service)

• Skeptical of further integration with Europe

• Currently has the minority in the House of Commons

• Led by Rishi Sunak

Liberal-Democratic Party

• Attempted to create a strong “in the middle” compromise to the two dominant parties

• Has gained support on issues such as health, education, and the environment

• Underrepresented in Commons due to FPTP/SMD

Other Parties

• Scottish National Party

• Plaid Cymru-Welsh nationalist party

• Sinn Fein-political arm of the IRA

• Democratic Unionist Party-Protestants from Northern Ireland, socially conservative

• UKIP-nationalistic, anti-EU, anti-immigrant

Voting Patterns

• Conservative Party

  • Middle and upper class

  • Educated

  • England, mostly rural and suburban areas

• Labour Party

  • Working class

  • Urban and industrial areas (Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle)

Interest Groups

• Between 1945-1980, business interests and trade union organizations fiercely competed for influence over the policy-making process in a corporatist system.

• Trade Union Congress (TUC) - represents coalition of unions, supports Labour Party, losing influence.

  • Union: workers come together to work together. They bargain for a better salary or better benefits. 

  •  They support the Labour Party as they are workers.

  • Have lost popularity throughout the years.

• Confederation of Business and Industry (CBI) - a coalition of business groups and private interests, usually supportive of the Conservative Party. 

  • They follow the Conservative Party because the people running the business are usually upper class so they follow the party that will benefit them the most. 

Media

• British newspapers reflect social class divisions

• They are divided between quality news and comments that appeal to the middle and upper classes, and mass circulation tabloids that target working and lower classes.

  • The newspapers are directed towards the upper class and the tabloids are directed towards the working class.

• British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

  • Government funded and guaranteed independence-this means they can share what they want and twist stories into what they want.

  • They do a good job at putting the right people in topics they are passionate about so the news quality is at its best. 

    • Usually respectful of government officials.

Elections

• MPs(Members of Parliament/Legislature) are the only national officials that British voters elect.

• Elections must be held at least 5 years at the bare minimum, but the Prime Minister may call them earlier. 

  • May be called early after they passed a good law or did something good and people are happy with the party. They do this so they will be guaranteed to win the next election. 

• Power to call elections is very important - the Prime Minister always calls elections when he or she thinks that the majority party has the best chance to win. 

  • Typically elections are called earlier than 5 years. 

• Winner-takes-all

• FPTP/SMD plurality

• Each party selects a candidate to run for each district

• MPs do not have to live in the district in which they are running, but they usually do.

  • it ‘s better to have someone in the county or state as they know what trouble the people are going through and how exactly they could help the state or country. 

• Party selects who runs in what districts

  • The party has full control over choosing who runs where.

• Party leaders run from safe districts - or districts that the party almost always wins.

  • Party leaders are the people actually running the party and they run people where they know they will be supported and win.

• Political neophytes are selected to run in districts the party knows it will lose.

Prime Minister & Cabinet

• Prime Minister

  • “First among equals”

    • Everyone’s equal and the PM isn’t better than the people just because he has power

  • MP

  • Leader of majority party or coalition

    • Needs to make sure they have good relationships with the people the PM is electing and be good at delegating since they have limited time. They need to know the rules and who they’re working with to make laws and do what they want to do in their elected time.

  • Campaigns for and represents the party in parliamentary elections

  • Chooses cabinet ministers and important subordinate posts

  • Make decisions in cabinet, with agreement of ministers

  • Shapes cabinet decisions into policy

• Cabinet

  • Center of policy-making in the British political system

  • Collective Responsibility

  • Target of lobbying by interest groups

    • Lobbying is a corporation, figure, or a union that goes to the capital and speaks to the members of the legislature/government to push their cause and advocate for it.  

Parliament

House of Commons

• Party that receives the majority of the votes becomes the Majority Party in Parliament, the party with the second most votes becomes the “loyal opposition”

• Coalition government occurs when no party wins a majority

  • Coalition: team effort, work together in a joined government

House of Commons: Debate

• Government-the Prime Minister and cabinet

• Question Time/Question Hour-the Prime Minister and his cabinet must defend themselves from inquisitive attacks from the opposition party as well as direct inquiry from members of his/her own party

• Speaker of the House-presides over debates

• Because of a lack of checks and balances, Question Time serves as a “check” on government by the minority party

Party Discipline 

• Party discipline very important in British politics

• A failed vote of confidence dissolves the government and the prime minister calls for new elections

Vote of Confidence

• Vote on a key issue within the party

• If the vote fails, a vote of no confidence is held 

• New elections for MPs must be held as soon as possible

• If the party loses a vote of confidence, all MPs lose their jobs, so there is plenty of motivation to vote the party line

• This is usually avoided by settling policy differences within majority party

Parliament Powers

• Debate and refine potential legislation

• Pass budget bills

• Oversee administration of laws (bureaucracy)

• Create new programs and positions

• Develop foreign policy

House of Lords

• Hereditary peers: hold seats that have been passed down through family ties over the centuries

• Life peers: people appointed to nonhereditary positions as a result of distinguished service to Britain

• Lords have gradually declined in authority over last 4 centuries

• The House of Lords has been reduced by half

Powers of the House of Lords

• Delay Legislation

• Debate technicalities of proposed bills

• Lords may add amendments to legislation, but House of Commons may delete their changes by a simple majority vote

Bureaucracy: Civil Servants

Bureaucrats are people in the government who aren’t elected but chosen.

• Top civil servants and bureaucrats usually stay with their departments, while ministers are party officials 

• Top civil servants are experts and often have a great deal of input into policy-making 

• Hundred of thousands of civil servants

• Administer laws and deliver public services

• Most do clerical and routine work for the bureaucracy

Judiciary

• Most judges are not MPs and few are active in party politics

• Parliamentary sovereignty has limited the development of judicial review

• The Supreme court can overturn government decisions that violate common law or previous acts of Parliament but it cannot overturn acts of Parliament

Referendums 

• It’s when the government has a matter at hand that they believe is so important that they don’t think the government should just decide, so they let the citizens decide.

• 1975 European Communities membership

• 1997/98 devolution referendums

• 2011 alternate voting would have given smaller parties more seats in Parliament (failed)

• 2014 Scottish independence (failed) 

• 2016 Brexit (passed)

Section 5.1-UK

Sources of Authority and Power: Introduction

• UK is a prosperous, liberal democracy

• Elections free and fair, and multiple parties compete

• It faces slow economic growth

A Brief History of the UK

• In 1215, the Magna Carta (1215) was the first step in limiting the monarch’s power

• In 1688, the Glorious Revolution expanded Parliament’s power

• In 1918, men over 21 and women over 30 gain the right to vote

• In the mid-eighteenth century, the civil service system began. 

Democratization

• The government is organized based on parliamentary sovereignty

• An independent Supreme Court (without the power of judicial review) was created in 2005

  • Very limited compared to the US

• The Supreme Court can overturn administration actions.

• An independent judiciary enhances rule of law

Unitary System with Devolution

• UK is unitary

• Power has been devolved to regional assemblies in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales

Legitimacy and Challenges to the State

• UK is a strong and stable state

• UK gave up some sovereignty in joining the EU

• The Brexit referendum passed, and the UK eventually left the EU

• Immigration is a divisive issue

Section 5.2 - Institutions of Government

• The UK is a parliamentary system of government

• Power is fused between the executive and legislature 

• Under parliamentary sovereignty, the government is supreme and has power over all aspects of the state

The Executive

• The monarch is the ceremonial head of state

  • Don’t do much

• The prime minister is the head of the majority party or majority party coalition in the House of Commons

• The prime minister chooses a cabinet, proposed program of legislation, oversees the bureaucracy, and sets the agenda in foreign policy

• The prime minister can be removed by his or her own party or through a vote of no confidence

The Legislature

• Parliament is bicameral

• The House of Commons has the power to debate and pass legislation, approve the budget, hold committee hearings, and question the prime minister

• The House of Lords has the power of delay

• The prime minister answers questions during a weekly, televised debate know as Prime Minister’s Question Time

The Judiciary

• Justices of the Supreme Court are based on merit, and candidates must have served previously in high judicial office

• The Supreme Courts does not have the power of judicial review and cannot overturn acts of parliament

• It’s a final court of appeal and can overturn administrative actions

• The Supreme Court enhances judicial independence, transparency, and rule of law

Section 5.3

Elections

• MPs are the only directly elected officials at the national level.

• MPs in the House of Commons are elected through an SMD(Single Member District)/FPTP(First Past The Post) system.

• The SMD election system results in two major parties

• First past the post: only need the most votes not the majority

Interest Groups and Social Movements

• In the 1960s and 70s, the UK was a corporatist system

• Thatcher ended corporatist arrangements with large business and labor interests

• Interest groups lobby the cabinet

• Environmental , social justice, women’s, anti-nuclear , and other interest groups are active

Section 5.4

Political Culture and Participation

• UK is a liberal democracy with multiple opportunities for citizen participation

Divisions in the UK

• Regional separatist movements reflect ethnic and cultural divisions

• Class divisions are still somewhat important and go beyond economic status. 

• Power has been devolved to regional assemblies in an effort to address regional divisions. 

Section 5.5

Economic and Social Change and Development

• The UK has a regulated market economy

• Wages, prices, and production are set mostly by supply and demand, with some regulations.

Globalization

• After WWII, the Labour government nationalized many major industries

• The NHS is created (National Health Service)

  • Socialized healthcare, you can go get basic care according to your income.

• In the 1980s, the Thatcher government privatized nationalized industries

• Thatcher’s economic liberalization policies created a market-oriented economy.

The Recent British Economy

• The economy shrank following the 2007 recession

• Following the 2010 election, conservatives adopted austerity measures

• Taxes were raised and social spending was cut to reduce the deficit

• Spending on NHS and education was not reduced

• Brexit and the Covid pandemic are likely to impact the British economy in the next few years

Social Policies

• The UK is a welfare state

• Benefits include income and housing assistance for the poor and disabled

• NHS is nationalized health care, and the government owns hospitals and clinics and pays health care professionals

• The NHS allows the government to control the costs of medical procedures and drugs

Shifting Demographics

• Migration from other countries is the main source of population growth in the UK

• Anti-immigrant sentiment was one of the reasons the Brexit referendum passed.

• The rise in the average age will strain the NHS because more people will need medical care and there will be fewer people of working age 

The UK and the Future

• The UK is likely to remain a stable, liberal democracy

• It is a high-income country with a stable middle class

• An aging population may strain the health care system

• Tensions around immigration challenge the state

• Scotland will likely advocate for more autonomy and even independence

Biggest Social Issues

• Cost of living/NHS

• Anti-immigration sentiment 

Biggest Economic Challenges

• In debt

• Continuing to navigate leaving Brexit

  • How to work with the US and how to work with Trump since they don’t really get along