Systems of Government
All systems of government contain the following institutions:
The executive is the chief political power in a state, usually a president or a prime minister.
The bureaucracy is a large set of unelected officials who implement the law.
The president gets to choose these people.
The legislature is a group of lawmakers that passes laws and represents citizens.
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets the law and applies it to individual cases.
The power of the judiciary varies from state to state.
Parliamentary Systems
A parliamentary system is a system in which the executive and legislature are fused.
A member of parliament (MP) is a person elected to serve in the legislature.
The prime minister (PM) is the head of government in a parliamentary system, who is a member of the legislature and is selected by the majority party.
Coalition government occurs when two or more parties agree to work together to form a majority and select the PM.
One method to check the power of the PM is through a vote of confidence.
A vote of no confidence is a vote by parliament to remove a government (the prime minister and cabinet) from power.
Presidential Systems
A presidential system is a system in which the executive and the legislature are elected independently and have separate and independent powers.
Presidential systems use separation of powers, which is a division of power among the major branches of government.
Since the executive (usually called a president) and the legislature are elected separately, divided government can occur. Divided government is when one or both houses of the legislature are controlled by a political party other than the party of the president.
Semi-Presidential Systems
A Semi-presidential system is a system that divides executive power between a directly elected president and a prime minister.
Powers for each executive are spelled out in the constitution.
Russia is a semi-presidential system.
Comparing Systems of Government
Presidential systems are less likely to pass policy.
Divided government
Executive and legislature share legitimacy because they are elected independently
Parliamentary systems can suffer from too many parties in the legislature, which may result in more coalition governments.
Section 4.2: Executives
Term Limits
Some systems use term limits, which are restrictions on the number of terms the executive may serve.
Term limits are used to
Prevent a consolidation of power.
Prevent personalized rule and dictatorships.
Term limits have disadvantages such as
Preventing a popular executive from continuing to serve.
Reducing policy continuity.
Causing the executive to rush to pass policies before leaving office.
A term of office is a specific number of years that an executive can serve
Presidential systems have fixed terms of office
Parliamentary systems have flexible terms of office
Removing an Executive
All three systems have methods by which the executive can be removed.
Removal is easier in parliamentary systems because
The prime minister could lose the legislative election (although this is unlikely).
He or she can be forced to resign by the majority party.
A vote of no confidence can remove the government.
More difficult in a presidential system because impeachment is difficult
Impeachment is the process of removing a president from office before the end of his or her term.
Removal usually requires a supermajority vote.
Separation of powers makes the process difficult.
Bureaucracies
Bureaucracies implement policy as part of the executive branch
In well functioning bureaucracies, most members are chosen based on their qualifications.
In corrupt countries, the bureaucracy is a source of graft and jobs of those in power.
The bureaucracy is often led by a cabinet which consists of the heads of major departments or ministries in the bureaucracy.
Legislative oversight is the power of the legislature to hold cabinet officials and members of the bureaucracy accountable for their actions and policies.
Section 4.3-Legislative
Legislative Structures
Two basic ways to structure a legislature
A unicameral legislature is a legislature with one chamber.
Advantages include passing policy quickly, less compromise is needed.
Authoritarian states often have unicameral legislatures
Limits competition
A bicameral legislature has two chambers
The lower chamber often has more power than the upper chamber.
The chambers often have different powers
Often used in federal systems
The upper chamber represents subnational government interests.
Advantages include a more deliberative policy process
Disadvantages include gridlock
Legislative Independence
Legislative independence is an important part of democratic regimes.
Can engage in legislative oversight
Remove the executive
Legislature in authoritarian regimes exist to:
Provide stability
Convey information about local problems
Create legitimacy
FRQ Practice
According to my knowledge of unicameral legislatures it’s a legislature that only has one chamber that creates the policies and rules.
An authoritarian state would have a unicameral legislature because it allows them to have more power over their country and it limits competition. For example in Russia, there’s a unicameral legislature so Putin can be the one making the decisions and ruling.
The legislature in a democratic system serves as a check on the executive because since it’s a bicameral legislature and has two chambers it's important to make sure the executive isn’t taking all the power for themselves.
Section 4.4-Judiciaries
Judicial Systems
The highest court in a democratic regime usually has the power of judicial review.
The United Kingdom is an exception.
There are two types of legal systems.
Common law is a legal system in which previous written opinions serve as precedent for future cases.
Case law is a legal system in which judges follow the law written by the legislature, and previous court decisions do not serve as precedent.
Judicial independence is the ability of judges to decide cases according to the law, free of interference from politically powerful officials or other institutions.
Independent judiciaries are important because they can
Protect minority rights
Check the power of the executive and legislature
Judiciaries cannot enforce their decisions. They are reliant on the executive and legislative branches for enforcement.
United Kingdom
Legitimacy
Traditional-Gradualism
Rational Legal-democratic constitution and rule of law
Unwritten Constitution-Magna Carta, English Bill of Rights, common law, legal codes, and customs.
Rational-Legal Authority: Rational-Legal authority is a form of government in which decisions are made based on laws and regulations, rather than on the personal whims of those in power.
Political Culture: Mult-nationalism
The UK is divided into four nations
England
Scotland
Wales
Northern Ireland
England
Largest region of Great Britain
Makes up ⅔ of the land mass
English have dominated the other nationalities historically, and still hold a disproportionate share of political power
Scotland
Strong sense of national identity
Has its own flag
Scottish National Assembly (devolution)
Scottish National Party
Referendum on leaving the UK defeated by voters in 2014
Wales
Plaid Cymru
Strong sense of national pride reflected in its flag and Welsh language
Welsh National Assembly (devolution)
Northern Ireland
The Irish Republican Army (IRA) used terrorism against British officials and citizens
Sinn Fein-political party of the IRA
Under the 1999 Good Friday Agreement, the IRA decommissioned its weapons in exchange for some self rule
Northern Ireland Assembly (devolution)
Devolution
In 1999, referendums in Scotland and Wales successfully passed, and each established their own regional assemblies: power of taxation, education, and economic planning.
London has a mayor who makes policies for the city.
British government is a unitary system (centralized control)
Ethnic Minorities
Make up about 13% of the British population
Ethnic minority representation in Parliament has gradually increased, the ethnic minorities are underrepresented
Labour Party
Early history of the party was defined by controversial Clause 4 that called for nationalization of the “commanding heights” of British industry
Growing moderation of the Labour Party was reflected by removal of Clause 4 in early 1990s
Party on the left
Led by PM Sir Keir Starmer
Conservative Party
Party on the right
Support the free market, but also support the welfare state and NHS (National Health Service)
Skeptical of further integration with Europe
Currently has the minority in the House of Commons
Led by Rishi Sunak
Liberal-Democratic Party
Attempted to create a strong “in the middle” compromise to the two dominant parties
Has gained support on issues such as health, education, and the environment
Underrepresented in Commons due to FPTP/SMD
Other Parties
Scottish National Party
Plaid Cymru-Welsh nationalist party
Sinn Fein-political arm of the IRA
Democratic Unionist Party-Protestants from Northern Ireland, socially conservative
UKIP-nationalistic, anti-EU, anti-immigrant
Voting Patterns
Conservative Party
Middle and upper class
Educated
England, mostly rural and suburban areas
Labour Party
Working class
Urban and industrial areas (Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle)
Interest Groups
Between 1945-1980, business interests and trade union organizations fiercely competed for influence over the policy-making process in a corporatist system.
Trade Union Congress (TUC) - represents coalition of unions, supports Labour Party, losing influence.
Union: workers come together to work together. They bargain for a better salary or better benefits.
They support the Labour Party as they are workers.
Have lost popularity throughout the years.
Confederation of Business and Industry (CBI) - a coalition of business groups and private interests, usually supportive of the Conservative Party.
They follow the Conservative Party because the people running the business are usually upper class so they follow the party that will benefit them the most.
Media
British newspapers reflect social class divisions
They are divided between quality news and comments that appeal to the middle and upper classes, and mass circulation tabloids that target working and lower classes.
The newspapers are directed towards the upper class and the tabloids are directed towards the working class.
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
Government funded and guaranteed independence-this means they can share what they want and twist stories into what they want.
They do a good job at putting the right people in topics they are passionate about so the news quality is at its best.
Usually respectful of government officials.
Elections
MPs(Members of Parliament/Legislature) are the only national officials that British voters elect.
Elections must be held at least 5 years at the bare minimum, but the Prime Minister may call them earlier.
May be called early after they passed a good law or did something good and people are happy with the party. They do this so they will be guaranteed to win the next election.
Power to call elections is very important - the Prime Minister always calls elections when he or she thinks that the majority party has the best chance to win.
Typically elections are called earlier than 5 years.
Winner-takes-all
FPTP/SMD plurality
Each party selects a candidate to run for each district
MPs do not have to live in the district in which they are running, but they usually do.
it ‘s better to have someone in the county or state as they know what trouble the people are going through and how exactly they could help the state or country.
Party selects who runs in what districts
The party has full control over choosing who runs where.
Party leaders run from safe districts - or districts that the party almost always wins.
Party leaders are the people actually running the party and they run people where they know they will be supported and win.
Political neophytes are selected to run in districts the party knows it will lose.
Prime Minister & Cabinet
Prime Minister
“First among equals”
Everyone’s equal and the PM isn’t better than the people just because he has power
MP
Leader of majority party or coalition
Needs to make sure they have good relationships with the people the PM is electing and be good at delegating since they have limited time. They need to know the rules and who they’re working with to make laws and do what they want to do in their elected time.
Campaigns for and represents the party in parliamentary elections
Chooses cabinet ministers and important subordinate posts
Make decisions in cabinet, with agreement of ministers
Shapes cabinet decisions into policy
Cabinet
Center of policy-making in the British political system
Collective Responsibility
Target of lobbying by interest groups
Lobbying is a corporation, figure, or a union that goes to the capital and speaks to the members of the legislature/government to push their cause and advocate for it.
Parliament
House of Commons
Party that receives the majority of the votes becomes the Majority Party in Parliament, the party with the second most votes becomes the “loyal opposition”
Coalition government occurs when no party wins a majority
Coalition: team effort, work together in a joined government
House of Commons: Debate
Government-the Prime Minister and cabinet
Question Time/Question Hour-the Prime Minister and his cabinet must defend themselves from inquisitive attacks from the opposition party as well as direct inquiry from members of his/her own party
Speaker of the House-presides over debates
Because of a lack of checks and balances, Question Time serves as a “check” on government by the minority party
Party Discipline
Party discipline very important in British politics
A failed vote of confidence dissolves the government and the prime minister calls for new elections
Vote of Confidence
Vote on a key issue within the party
If the vote fails, a vote of no confidence is held
New elections for MPs must be held as soon as possible
If the party loses a vote of confidence, all MPs lose their jobs, so there is plenty of motivation to vote the party line
This is usually avoided by settling policy differences within majority party
Parliament Powers
Debate and refine potential legislation
Pass budget bills
Oversee administration of laws (bureaucracy)
Create new programs and positions
Develop foreign policy
House of Lords
Hereditary peers: hold seats that have been passed down through family ties over the centuries
Life peers: people appointed to nonhereditary positions as a result of distinguished service to Britain
Lords have gradually declined in authority over last 4 centuries
The House of Lords has been reduced by half
Powers of the House of Lords
Delay Legislation
Debate technicalities of proposed bills
Lords may add amendments to legislation, but House of Commons may delete their changes by a simple majority vote
Bureaucracy: Civil Servants
Bureaucrats are people in the government who aren’t elected but chosen.
Top civil servants and bureaucrats usually stay with their departments, while ministers are party officials
Top civil servants are experts and often have a great deal of input into policy-making
Hundred of thousands of civil servants
Administer laws and deliver public services
Most do clerical and routine work for the bureaucracy
Judiciary
Most judges are not MPs and few are active in party politics
Parliamentary sovereignty has limited the development of judicial review
The Supreme court can overturn government decisions that violate common law or previous acts of Parliament but it cannot overturn acts of Parliament
Referendums
It’s when the government has a matter at hand that they believe is so important that they don’t think the government should just decide, so they let the citizens decide.
1975 European Communities membership
1997/98 devolution referendums
2011 alternate voting would have given smaller parties more seats in Parliament (failed)
2014 Scottish independence (failed)
2016 Brexit (passed)
Section 5.1-UK
Sources of Authority and Power: Introduction
UK is a prosperous, liberal democracy
Elections free and fair, and multiple parties compete
It faces slow economic growth
A Brief History of the UK
In 1215, the Magna Carta (1215) was the first step in limiting the monarch’s power
In 1688, the Glorious Revolution expanded Parliament’s power
In 1918, men over 21 and women over 30 gain the right to vote
In the mid-eighteenth century, the civil service system began.
Democratization
The government is organized based on parliamentary sovereignty
An independent Supreme Court (without the power of judicial review) was created in 2005
Very limited compared to the US
The Supreme Court can overturn administration actions.
An independent judiciary enhances rule of law
Unitary System with Devolution
UK is unitary
Power has been devolved to regional assemblies in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales
Legitimacy and Challenges to the State
UK is a strong and stable state
UK gave up some sovereignty in joining the EU
The Brexit referendum passed, and the UK eventually left the EU
Immigration is a divisive issue
Section 5.2 - Institutions of Government
The UK is a parliamentary system of government
Power is fused between the executive and legislature
Under parliamentary sovereignty, the government is supreme and has power over all aspects of the state
The Executive
The monarch is the ceremonial head of state
Don’t do much
The prime minister is the head of the majority party or majority party coalition in the House of Commons
The prime minister chooses a cabinet, proposed program of legislation, oversees the bureaucracy, and sets the agenda in foreign policy
The prime minister can be removed by his or her own party or through a vote of no confidence
The Legislature
Parliament is bicameral
The House of Commons has the power to debate and pass legislation, approve the budget, hold committee hearings, and question the prime minister
The House of Lords has the power of delay
The prime minister answers questions during a weekly, televised debate know as Prime Minister’s Question Time
The Judiciary
Justices of the Supreme Court are based on merit, and candidates must have served previously in high judicial office
The Supreme Courts does not have the power of judicial review and cannot overturn acts of parliament
It’s a final court of appeal and can overturn administrative actions
The Supreme Court enhances judicial independence, transparency, and rule of law
Section 5.3
Elections
MPs are the only directly elected officials at the national level.
MPs in the House of Commons are elected through an SMD(Single Member District)/FPTP(First Past The Post) system.
The SMD election system results in two major parties
First past the post: only need the most votes not the majority
Interest Groups and Social Movements
In the 1960s and 70s, the UK was a corporatist system
Thatcher ended corporatist arrangements with large business and labor interests
Interest groups lobby the cabinet
Environmental , social justice, women’s, anti-nuclear , and other interest groups are active
Section 5.4
Political Culture and Participation
UK is a liberal democracy with multiple opportunities for citizen participation
Divisions in the UK
Regional separatist movements reflect ethnic and cultural divisions
Class divisions are still somewhat important and go beyond economic status.
Power has been devolved to regional assemblies in an effort to address regional divisions.
Section 5.5
Economic and Social Change and Development
The UK has a regulated market economy
Wages, prices, and production are set mostly by supply and demand, with some regulations.
Globalization
After WWII, the Labour government nationalized many major industries
The NHS is created (National Health Service)
Socialized healthcare, you can go get basic care according to your income.
In the 1980s, the Thatcher government privatized nationalized industries
Thatcher’s economic liberalization policies created a market-oriented economy.
The Recent British Economy
The economy shrank following the 2007 recession
Following the 2010 election, conservatives adopted austerity measures
Taxes were raised and social spending was cut to reduce the deficit
Spending on NHS and education was not reduced
Brexit and the Covid pandemic are likely to impact the British economy in the next few years
Social Policies
The UK is a welfare state
Benefits include income and housing assistance for the poor and disabled
NHS is nationalized health care, and the government owns hospitals and clinics and pays health care professionals
The NHS allows the government to control the costs of medical procedures and drugs
Shifting Demographics
Migration from other countries is the main source of population growth in the UK
Anti-immigrant sentiment was one of the reasons the Brexit referendum passed.
The rise in the average age will strain the NHS because more people will need medical care and there will be fewer people of working age
The UK and the Future
The UK is likely to remain a stable, liberal democracy
It is a high-income country with a stable middle class
An aging population may strain the health care system
Tensions around immigration challenge the state
Scotland will likely advocate for more autonomy and even independence
Biggest Social Issues
Cost of living/NHS
Anti-immigration sentiment
Biggest Economic Challenges
In debt
Continuing to navigate leaving Brexit
How to work with the US and how to work with Trump since they don’t really get along