EXAM 4

 1. How do you determine if a problem is psychopathological?

To determine if a problem is psychopathological, it generally needs to meet certain criteria:

• Distress: The individual experiences significant distress or suffering.

  • Example: Someone with severe anxiety may have panic attacks that cause distress in daily life.

• Dysfunction: The problem interferes with the person’s ability to function in important areas of life, such as work, relationships, or self-care.

  • Example: A person with depression may struggle to get out of bed, go to work, or interact socially.

• Deviance: The behavior is significantly different from what is culturally expected or normatively acceptable.

  • Example: A person with a psychotic disorder may hear voices that no one else hears, which is outside of typical behavior.

2. What is the diathesis-stress hypothesis?

The diathesis-stress hypothesis suggests that psychological disorders develop due to a combination of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental stressors.

• Example: Someone with a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia may develop the disorder after experiencing major life stressors, such as the death of a loved one or extreme trauma.

3. What system of classification of psychopathology is more widely used in the United States?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is the system most widely used in the United States to classify and diagnose mental health disorders.

• Example: A clinician diagnosing someone with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) would use the criteria outlined in the DSM-5 to determine whether the person meets the diagnostic criteria.

4. Know the basic indicators of autism spectrum disorder.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by:

• Social Communication Difficulties: Trouble understanding and engaging in social interactions.

  • Example: Difficulty making eye contact or understanding nonverbal cues like facial expressions.

• Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors: Engaging in repetitive actions or following strict routines.

  • Example: A child may insist on always using the same route to school or repeatedly lining up toys.

5. What needs to be present in order to arrive at a diagnosis of ADHD?

To diagnose ADHD, a person typically must exhibit:

• Inattention: Difficulty staying focused, following instructions, or organizing tasks.

  • Example: A child may frequently forget to complete assignments or be easily distracted in class.

• Hyperactivity and Impulsivity: Excessive movement or inability to stay still and impulsive behavior.

  • Example: A person might frequently interrupt others during conversations or have trouble staying seated during meetings.

6. Describe the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

• Positive Symptoms: These are symptoms that represent an excess or distortion of normal functioning.

  • Example (Hallucinations): Hearing voices that aren't there.

  • Example (Delusions): Believing that they are being persecuted or have special powers.

• Negative Symptoms: These are symptoms that reflect a decrease in normal functioning.

  • Example: A person might have difficulty showing emotions (flat affect) or withdrawing from social interactions (social isolation).

7. Describe the manic and depressive phases of bipolar disorder.

• Manic Phase: Characterized by elevated mood, high energy, impulsivity, and sometimes reckless behavior.

  • Example: A person may spend excessive money on unnecessary items or talk rapidly and engage in risky behaviors.

• Depressive Phase: Marked by feelings of hopelessness, lack of energy, and difficulty concentrating.

  • Example: A person may feel sad for weeks, have trouble getting out of bed, and lose interest in activities they once enjoyed.

8. Why is bipolar disorder sometimes described as a "bridge" between schizophrenia and depression?

Bipolar disorder is considered a "bridge" because it shares characteristics of both depression (e.g., low mood, lack of energy) and schizophrenia (e.g., possible delusions, manic behavior).

• Example: During a manic episode, someone might experience delusions of grandeur (like thinking they can fly), which are more characteristic of schizophrenia, but also experience depression, which aligns with mood disorders like depression.

9. What is meant by major depression?

Major depression is a mood disorder characterized by prolonged periods of deep sadness, loss of interest in daily activities, and other symptoms such as fatigue and difficulty concentrating.

• Example: Someone with major depression may feel constantly fatigued, unable to get out of bed, and lose interest in hobbies or work for weeks at a time.

10. Which of the psychopathologies is most common?

The most common psychopathological disorder in the U.S. is anxiety disorders, which include conditions like generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder.

• Example: A person with social anxiety disorder may fear public speaking or being judged by others to such an extent that it affects their daily life.

11. Describe the three subtypes of anxiety disorders described in class.

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Excessive, uncontrollable worry about various aspects of life.

  • Example: A person might worry about work, family, and health, even when there is no clear cause for concern.

• Panic Disorder: Recurrent and unexpected panic attacks characterized by intense fear and physical symptoms like heart palpitations.

  • Example: A person might suddenly experience a panic attack while driving, with feelings of choking or heart palpitations.

• Phobias: Intense, irrational fear of specific objects or situations.

  • Example: A person with arachnophobia has an intense fear of spiders, leading them to avoid certain places or situations where they might encounter one.

12. How do "phobias" differ from normal, everyday fears?

Phobias are intense, persistent, and irrational fears of specific objects or situations that interfere with a person’s life. Normal fears are temporary and proportional to the threat.

• Example: Fear of spiders is a phobia if it causes significant distress or avoidance of certain places, whereas a normal fear might be a momentary reaction to a large spider on the wall.

13. What is the difference between an obsession and a compulsion?

• Obsession: A persistent, intrusive thought or urge.

  • Example: A person might have an obsession with cleanliness and fear contamination.

• Compulsion: A repetitive behavior or mental act performed to reduce the anxiety caused by an obsession.

  • Example: The person with the cleanliness obsession might compulsively wash their hands multiple times.

14. What is “hoarding disorder”?

Hoarding disorder is characterized by persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, leading to clutter that disrupts living spaces and daily life.

• Example: A person may have stacks of old newspapers, clothes, and items they don’t need, but feel anxious about discarding them, leading to severe clutter.

15. What is the difference between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa? Why are these disorders hard to treat?

• Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight and a refusal to maintain a healthy body weight.

  • Example: A person with anorexia might severely restrict food intake and exercise excessively.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise.

  • Example: A person might binge on a large amount of food and then purge by vomiting to prevent weight gain.

• These disorders are difficult to treat due to denial, low self-esteem, and intense fear of gaining weight.

16. Describe the three personality disorders discussed in class.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: A disregard for others’ rights, often leading to criminal behavior.

  • Example: A person with this disorder may engage in illegal activities, like theft or assault, without remorse.

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Instability in mood, relationships, and self-image, often leading to impulsive behaviors.

  • Example: A person might have intense, unstable relationships and experience extreme shifts in self-esteem.

• Narcissistic Personality Disorder: A pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.

  • Example: A person with this disorder might believe they are superior to others and expect special treatment.

17. What are dissociative disorders?

Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in a person’s sense of identity, memory, or consciousness. The most common is dissociative identity disorder (DID), formerly known as multiple personality disorder.

• Example: A person with DID might have two or more distinct identities or personalities, with memory gaps between them.

18. What are the steps of therapy?

The steps of therapy typically include:

1. Assessment: Understanding the client’s issues.

2. Goal Setting: Identifying desired outcomes.

3. Intervention: Using therapeutic techniques to address problems.

4. Evaluation: Assessing progress toward goals.

• Example: A therapist might assess someone’s anxiety, set goals to reduce symptoms, use cognitive behavioral therapy to help change thought patterns, and evaluate the client’s progress over time.

19. Describe the different professions that provide therapy.

• Clinical Psychologists: Provide psychotherapy and assess mental health disorders.

  • Example: A clinical psychologist might provide therapy for depression.

• Counselors: Focus on helping people with everyday problems like stress and relationship issues.

  • Example: A counselor might help a couple work through communication problems.

• Psychiatrists: Medical doctors who can prescribe medication and provide therapy.

  • Example: A psychiatrist might prescribe antidepressants for someone with major depression.

20. Which type of therapy is most widely used in the United States?

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most widely used form of psychotherapy in the United States. It focuses on changing negative thought patterns and behaviors.

• Example: A therapist might use CBT to help a person with social anxiety challenge their irrational fears about social interactions.

21. What are some common myths about therapy?

Some common myths about therapy include:

• Myth: Therapy is only for people with severe mental disorders.

  • Example: Many people believe therapy is only for those with conditions like schizophrenia or severe depression, but it can also help people with everyday stress, relationship issues, and personal growth.

• Myth: Therapists just listen and don’t provide advice.

  • Example: While listening is a key part of therapy, therapists often provide guidance and interventions based on psychological principles, such as cognitive-behavioral techniques.

• Myth: Therapy is a quick fix.

  • Example: Some people expect immediate results from therapy, but therapeutic change often takes time, effort, and consistent work.

22. Describe psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis is a therapeutic approach founded by Sigmund Freud. It emphasizes uncovering unconscious thoughts and feelings, often from early childhood, to understand present behavior.

• Techniques: Includes free association (saying whatever comes to mind), dream analysis, and analyzing resistance or transference in the therapy process.

  • Example: A psychoanalyst might ask a client to talk freely about their thoughts to uncover hidden fears or desires. For example, a client might discuss their childhood to understand why they have trust issues in adulthood.

23. Describe client-based or Rogerian therapy.

Client-centered therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizes a non-directive, empathetic approach where the therapist creates a safe, nonjudgmental environment for the client to explore their feelings.

• Core concepts: Unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness.

  • Example: In a session, a therapist using this approach would listen actively, reflect the client’s feelings, and show empathy, such as saying, "It sounds like you're feeling really overwhelmed by that situation."

24. Describe cognitive therapy.

Cognitive therapy, developed by Aaron Beck, focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress and behavioral problems.

• Goal: To help individuals recognize and challenge distorted thinking (e.g., catastrophizing or black-and-white thinking) and replace it with more realistic, positive thoughts.

  • Example: A person with social anxiety might learn to recognize thoughts like, "Everyone will think I'm stupid if I speak," and challenge it by learning that most people aren’t as critical as they imagine.

25. Describe the behavioral therapies.

Behavioral therapies focus on changing maladaptive behaviors through learning principles, such as reinforcement, punishment, and classical conditioning.

• Techniques: Includes techniques like exposure therapy (gradual exposure to feared stimuli), token economies (reinforcing positive behaviors with rewards), and systematic desensitization.

  • Example: A person with a phobia of dogs might gradually be exposed to a dog in a controlled way (through pictures, then videos, then real-life exposure) to reduce fear.

26. Define the following terms: id, ego, superego, unconscious, collective unconscious, archetypes.

• Id: The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

  • Example: If you're hungry, the id wants food right now, without concern for consequences.

• Ego: The rational part of the mind that operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and the superego.

  • Example: The ego recognizes that you can’t steal food from a store to satisfy hunger and works out a more socially acceptable solution, like going to a restaurant.

• Superego: The moral conscience that internalizes societal rules and strives for perfection.

  • Example: The superego might tell you, "Stealing is wrong, and you should wait until you can afford food."

• Unconscious: A part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires outside of conscious awareness.

  • Example: You might not consciously remember a traumatic event from childhood, but it may influence your behavior.

• Collective Unconscious: A concept introduced by Carl Jung, suggesting that all humans share a universal unconscious mind, shaped by shared human experiences across generations.

  • Example: Archetypes, like the "hero" or "shadow," are universal themes found in myths and stories across cultures.

• Archetypes: Universal symbols, themes, or patterns of behavior found across different cultures.

  • Example: The "hero" archetype is represented in characters like Harry Potter, Frodo Baggins, or King Arthur.

27. During which stage of development does the Oedipus conflict or complex occur?

The Oedipus complex occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (ages 3–6). According to Freud, during this stage, children develop unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of rivalry toward the same-sex parent.

• Example: A young boy may feel jealous of his father’s relationship with his mother and experience unconscious sexual attraction toward his mother.

28. What is meant by the term “congruence”?

Congruence refers to the alignment between a person’s self-concept (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to be). In client-centered therapy, the goal is to help clients achieve congruence.

• Example: If someone feels that they are kind and caring (self-concept) but would like to be more confident and assertive (ideal self), achieving congruence would involve aligning those two aspects of themselves.

29. What is meant by the term “self-actualization”?

Self-actualization is the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential and capabilities, often associated with Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It represents the highest level of psychological development.

• Example: A person who has achieved self-actualization might feel a sense of fulfillment in their personal life, career, and relationships and be fully engaged in creative or meaningful pursuits.

30. How do the existential psychologists differ from the humanistic psychologists?

Existential psychologists focus on individuals' search for meaning and the inherent anxiety that arises from confronting life’s ultimate questions (e.g., death, freedom, isolation).

• Example: An existential therapist may help someone who is grappling with the meaning of life and their existential fears. Humanistic psychologists, like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, focus on self-actualization, personal growth, and the importance of creating a nurturing environment for psychological development.

• Example: A humanistic therapist would focus on helping clients build a positive self-concept and develop their full potential.

31. What is Bandura’s reciprocal determinism?

Reciprocal determinism, a concept introduced by Albert Bandura, suggests that behavior, personal factors (such as cognitive processes), and environmental factors all interact and influence each other.

• Example: A shy person might avoid social situations (behavior), which could reinforce their belief that they are socially awkward (personal factor), and this, in turn, might prevent them from seeking out social opportunities (environmental factor).

32. What are the assumptions of Rotter’s Social Learning Theory?

Rotter’s Social Learning Theory is based on the idea that behavior is influenced by the interaction between a person’s expectations and reinforcement (the outcome of behavior).

• Example: If a child learns that being friendly leads to positive attention from their parents (reinforcement), they are more likely to continue displaying friendly behavior.

• Key Concepts: Locus of control (internal vs. external) and outcome expectancies (beliefs about the consequences of actions).

33. Describe the elements of Rotter’s prediction formula.

Rotter’s prediction formula states that behavior potential is determined by:

1. Expectancy: The individual’s belief about the likelihood of a specific outcome.

2. Reinforcement value: The degree to which the person values a particular outcome.

• Example: If a student expects that studying will result in a good grade (expectancy) and values the reward of success (reinforcement value), they are more likely to study.

34. Be able to name and describe the different traits known as The Big Five.

The Big Five Personality Traits, also known as the Five-Factor Model, represent broad dimensions of personality:

1. Openness to Experience: A trait that reflects the extent to which a person is open-minded, imaginative, and willing to explore new ideas and experiences.

   • Example: Someone high in openness may enjoy traveling, trying new foods, or experimenting with creative hobbies.

2. Conscientiousness: A trait that reflects a person’s degree of organization, dependability, and self-discipline.

   • Example: A highly conscientious person might be very organized and detail-oriented, always meeting deadlines at work.

3. Extraversion: A trait that reflects the extent to which a person is outgoing, energetic, and sociable.

   • Example: An extraverted person might feel energized by social gatherings, often seeking out parties or large events.

4. Agreeableness: A trait that reflects a person’s tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, and willing to get along with others.

   • Example: Someone high in agreeableness may go out of their way to help others and avoid conflicts.

5. Neuroticism: A trait that reflects the degree to which a person experiences negative emotions, such as anxiety, sadness, or mood swings.

   • Example: A person high in neuroticism may become easily upset or anxious, even in relatively minor situations.

35. What is the dark tetrad?

The dark tetrad is a set of four negative personality traits that are typically associated with harmful behavior:

1. Narcissism: Self-centeredness and a grandiose sense of one’s importance.

   • Example: A narcissistic person might constantly seek attention and admiration from others.

2. Machiavellianism: Manipulativeness and a focus on self-interest, often at the expense of others.

   • Example: Someone high in Machiavellianism might use deceit or manipulation to achieve personal goals.

3. Psychopathy: A lack of empathy, impulsive behavior, and a tendency toward antisocial behavior.

   • Example: A psychopath may engage in harmful or criminal behavior without remorse.

4. Sadism: Deriving pleasure from inflicting pain or suffering on others.

   • Example: Someone with sadistic tendencies may enjoy seeing others in distress or pain.

36. Describe the difference between an inhibited and an uninhibited individual.

• Inhibited Individuals: These individuals are more shy, reserved, and tend to avoid new or unfamiliar situations. They may feel anxious or uncomfortable in social interactions or new environments.

  • Example: A child who clings to their parents and is reluctant to interact with other children in a new playground is likely inhibited.

• Uninhibited Individuals: These individuals are outgoing, adventurous, and tend to approach new situations with enthusiasm and curiosity. They are more likely to engage with unfamiliar people and experiences.

  • Example: A child who quickly makes friends and enjoys exploring new environments, such as a new school, is uninhibited.

37. What do twin studies tell us about personality?

Twin studies are used to explore the relative contributions of genetics and environment to personality. Research shows that genetics plays a significant role in personality development, as identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) are more similar in traits like extraversion and neuroticism than fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes). However, environmental factors also contribute to shaping personality.

• Example: Identical twins raised apart may show similar personality traits, even though they were raised in different environments.

38. Name some ways we try to measure personality.

There are several ways to measure personality:

1. Self-report inventories: These are questionnaires in which people report their own traits, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., the Big Five Inventory or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)).

   • Example: A person might complete a questionnaire that asks them how much they agree with statements like, "I enjoy socializing" or "I tend to get anxious in new situations."

2. Projective tests: These tests involve presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli (e.g., inkblot images or pictures) and asking them to describe what they see. The idea is that responses reveal unconscious aspects of the individual’s personality.

   • Example: The Rorschach Inkblot Test is one of the most well-known projective tests.

3. Observational methods: Trained observers may assess behavior in naturalistic or controlled settings to infer aspects of personality.

   • Example: A psychologist might observe a child's interactions with peers to assess social personality traits like aggression or friendliness.

39. Describe the different types of attribution bias.

Attribution biases refer to the tendency to make errors when explaining the causes of behavior. Some common attribution biases include:

1. Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overemphasize internal traits (e.g., personality) and underestimate external factors (e.g., situational influences) when explaining other people's behavior.

   • Example: If someone cuts you off in traffic, you might think they are rude (internal attribution) rather than considering they might be rushing to an emergency (external attribution).

2. Self-serving Bias: The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors.

   • Example: If you do well on a test, you might attribute it to your intelligence (internal factor), but if you do poorly, you might blame the test’s difficulty (external factor).

3. Actor-Observer Bias: The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational factors and others' behavior to their personality.

   • Example: If you spill coffee on yourself, you might blame it on the crowded coffee shop (situational), but if someone else spills coffee, you might think they’re clumsy (personal attribution).

40. What are some things we know about stereotyping?

Stereotyping refers to making generalized assumptions about a group of people based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, or occupation. Some key points about stereotyping:

• Stereotypes are often inaccurate: They can be based on limited or exaggerated experiences and can lead to unfair or harmful judgments.

  • Example: Assuming that all elderly people are frail or that all teenagers are rebellious.

• Stereotyping can lead to discrimination: When people act on stereotypes, it can lead to bias and unequal treatment.

  • Example: If a hiring manager assumes a woman is not as capable as a man because of a stereotype about women in leadership, they might not hire her for a job.

41. Define “cognitive dissonance.”

Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort that arises when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. To reduce this discomfort, individuals may change their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

• Example: If someone believes smoking is unhealthy but continues to smoke, they may experience cognitive dissonance. They might reduce the discomfort by convincing themselves that the health risks aren't as serious or by quitting smoking to align their behavior with their belief.

42. What is a social role? A social script? What did the Stanford Prison Experiment teach us about these concepts? When are we most likely to use a social script?

• Social role: A set of expectations about how people in a given position should behave.

  • Example: A doctor is expected to be caring, knowledgeable, and professional.

• Social script: A series of expected behaviors, actions, and consequences that guide how we act in social situations.

  • Example: A social script for a dinner party includes saying hello, engaging in polite conversation, and thanking the host.

The Stanford Prison Experiment showed how quickly individuals conform to assigned roles, even if those roles involve abusive behavior. Participants in the “guard” role became cruel, and those in the “prisoner” role became submissive, illustrating how powerful social roles and scripts can be in shaping behavior.

• Example: We are most likely to use social scripts in unfamiliar social situations, like attending a wedding or a formal dinner.

43. What are the theories of attraction?

There are several theories that explain why people are attracted to each other:

1. Proximity: We tend to be attracted to people who are physically close to us.

   • Example: You are more likely to form a friendship with someone who sits near you in class.

2. Similarity: We are attracted to people who share similar attitudes, interests, and values.

   • Example: Two people who both enjoy hiking might become friends or romantic partners.

3. Reciprocal Liking: We are attracted to people who show that they like us.

   • Example: If someone expresses interest in you, you may feel more positively toward them.

4. Physical Attractiveness: People are often drawn to others who are physically attractive.

   • Example: People may be more likely to ask someone on a date if they find them physically attractive.

44. Describe Taylor and Altman’s Process Theory of Intimacy.

Taylor and Altman’s Process Theory of Intimacy suggests that intimacy develops through a gradual process of self-disclosure, where individuals share increasingly personal information with each other over time.

• Example: At the beginning of a relationship, you might talk about surface-level topics (e.g., hobbies), but as the relationship deepens, you may share more intimate details (e.g., past relationships, fears, and personal values).

45. What are the causes of and the means of combating prejudice?

Causes of prejudice:

1. Social categorization: People often categorize others into groups, leading to in-group vs. out-group biases.

   • Example: Seeing people from different ethnic groups as “others” rather than individuals.

2. Social learning: Prejudices can be learned from parents, peers, or media.

   • Example: A child who hears biased language from their family might grow up with similar prejudices.

3. Conformity to social norms: People might adopt prejudiced views because they want to fit in with their social group.

Combating prejudice:

1. Education: Learning about different cultures and groups can reduce stereotypes.

2. Intergroup contact: Engaging in positive, cooperative interactions with members of different groups can help reduce prejudice.

   • Example: Working on a community project with people from different backgrounds can help break down stereotypes.

46. What conclusions did Milgram reach in his obedience studies?

Milgram’s obedience study showed that people are highly likely to obey authority figures, even when asked to perform actions that conflict with their moral values.

• Conclusion: People will often follow authority figures’ instructions to the extent of inflicting harm on others, especially when they are not personally responsible for the actions.

  • Example: In the experiment, participants administered what they believed were harmful shocks to others because they were instructed to do so by an authority figure (the researcher).

47. What conclusions did Asch reach in his conformity studies?

Asch’s conformity study demonstrated that people are often willing to conform to a group’s opinion, even when it is clearly wrong.

• Conclusion: The desire to fit in with a group can override the desire to be correct.

  • Example: Participants in Asch’s experiment conformed to the incorrect answers given by the group, even though they knew the correct answer.

48. What is the bystander effect? What causes it? How can we combat it?

The bystander effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in need when others are present.

• Causes:

  • Diffusion of responsibility: The more people present, the less each person feels responsible for helping.

  • Fear of social judgment: People may fear looking foolish if they intervene or do the wrong thing.

• Combating it:

  • Directing responsibility: If you are in an emergency situation, explicitly asking someone for help can reduce the bystander effect.

  • Example: Pointing to a person in the crowd and saying, "You, call 911," can make someone feel more accountable for helping.