Congress Study Guide :3

MIKE JOHNSON/ speaker of the house

• no formal powers meaning no powers derived by the constitution

• informal

• leader and spokesperson of the majority party

• sets agenda and tries to maintain party unity

• coalition

• decides committee appointments and refers bills to committee

• bipartisan bills

• presides over the house

• maintains order during during debate enforces rules, shecdules vote

• chairs the house rules commitee

• negotaitons with senate leadership and president

• communicates with the public and media

  John Thune

• no formal powers

• informal

• helps as agenda orgainazing debates and scheduling votes

• party spokesman for majority party

• cordinates legislative legislative action

• mobilizes party members for votes

• neogoates with other party party leader in house and senate
  

1. Congress: A national legislative body, especially that of the United States. The U.S. Congress, which convenes at the capital in Washington, D.C., was established by the Constitution of 1787 and is composed of two distinct chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress plays a critical role in shaping federal legislation, overseeing the executive branch, and representing the interests of American citizens. It is also empowered to declare war, approve treaties, and regulate interstate commerce.

2. Senate: The smaller upper assembly of the U.S. Congress, consisting of 100 members, two from each state, serving six-year terms. The Senate has key responsibilities, including ratifying treaties, confirming presidential appointments (such as Supreme Court justices), and conducting impeachment trials for federal officials. Senators may vote in a variety of ways, including roll call votes, voice votes, and unanimous consent.

3. House of Representatives: The lower chamber of the U.S. Congress, consisting of 435 representatives. The number of representatives from each state is based on the state’s population, ensuring proportional representation. The House has exclusive powers, such as initiating revenue bills and impeaching federal officials. Representatives serve two-year terms and engage in introducing bills, resolving amendments, and serving on committees, allowing them to provide direct representation for their constituents.

4. Constituency: The group of voters or residents in a specific area that a representative or member of Congress is elected to represent. Constituents hold significant influence over their representatives through feedback, engagement in town hall meetings, and participating in elections.

5. Congressional term: The period during which Congress meets to conduct its legislative business, which lasts two years in the United States. Each term begins on January 3rd of odd-numbered years and is marked by ongoing legislative duties such as debating bills, conducting hearings, and addressing executive nominations.

6. Public policy: The principles that shape the conduct of the government, reflected in laws, regulations, and guidelines that address societal issues. Public policy areas include healthcare, education, environmental protection, and national security. Policymaking involves a complex interplay of legal frameworks, interest groups, and public opinion.

7. Federal budget: The annual financial plan of the federal government that outlines anticipated revenue and proposed expenditures for the fiscal year. The budget reflects the government's priorities and policies, impacting federal programs, national defense, and social services. It is proposed by the President and requires congressional approval.

8. Revenue: The income generated from various sources, predominantly taxes, that the government collects to fund public services and programs. Major sources of revenue include income tax, corporate tax, payroll tax, and excise taxes. The management of government revenue is crucial for maintaining fiscal health and funding essential government functions.

9. Legislation: The process through which laws are proposed, debated, amended, and enacted. This process includes several stages: introduction of a bill, committee review, floor debate, voting, and, if passed, presidential approval. Legislation can be influenced by public opinion, interest groups, and political negotiations.

10. Committees: Subgroups within Congress that focus on specific policy areas, such as finance, health, and education. Committees play a key role in reviewing, amending, and reporting on legislation and conducting oversight of executive agencies. Examples include standing committees, select committees, joint committees, and conference committees.

11. Hearings: Meetings held by committees to gather information, expert testimonies, and public opinions regarding proposed legislation or issues. Hearings allow Congress to scrutinize the executive branch, assess policy implications, and involve constituents and stakeholders in the legislative process.

12. Debate: The formal discussion of proposed legislation where members express their support or opposition prior to a vote. Debates can occur within committees or on the chambers' floors, and often involve strategic rhetoric and negotiation to influence the outcomes of votes.

13. Committee leadership: Individuals holding leadership positions in various committees within Congress. The leadership is responsible for setting agendas, organizing meetings, managing legislative discussions, and guiding legislative priorities. The effectiveness of committee leaders often significantly impacts the legislative process.

14. Filibuster: A legislative tactic employed in the Senate where a member speaks at length to delay or block a vote on a bill. Filibustering is often used as a means of opposition, prompting negotiations or adjustments to proposed legislation. The threat of a filibuster can lead to the need for a cloture vote.

15. Cloture: A procedure in the Senate used to end a filibuster and bring a bill to vote. Cloture requires the support of at least 60 senators and is an essential tool for maintaining legislative efficiency in a chamber subject to extended debate and delay.

16. Unanimous consent: An agreement in the Senate that allows members to expedite proceedings without the need for formal votes. Achieving unanimous consent can streamline legislative processes, making it easier to pass non-controversial measures efficiently.

17. House Rules Committee: A committee in the House of Representatives that establishes the rules for debating proposed legislation and decides how and when bills will be considered on the floor. The House Rules Committee plays a pivotal role in determining the legislative agenda and time constraints for debate.

18. Discharge petition: A procedural tool used in the House of Representatives to bring a bill out of committee and to the floor for consideration, requiring the signatures of a majority of House members. Discharge petitions can be crucial for enabling legislative action, especially when committee leadership is reluctant to advance a bill.

19. Discretionary spending: Optional spending determined by annual appropriations laws, which include government programs and services that are not required by law. Discretionary spending covers a range of programs such as education, defense, and scientific research, significantly influencing national priorities.

20. Mandatory spending: Expenditures required by law, encompassing entitlement programs like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, which do not require annual appropriations. Mandatory spending constitutes a significant portion of the federal budget and is subject to demographic shifts and economic changes.

21. Entitlements: Programs providing benefits to individuals who meet specific eligibility criteria, including Social Security and Medicaid. Entitlement programs are designed to provide crucial financial support and services to vulnerable populations, affecting millions of Americans.

22. Budget deficit: The fiscal condition that occurs when government spending exceeds revenue within a given fiscal year. A budget deficit can lead to increased borrowing, impacting long-term fiscal health and prompting discussions on government spending policies.

23. National debt: The cumulative amount of money that a government owes to creditors due to annual budget deficits over time. National debt can influence interest rates, economic stability, and the government's ability to finance future obligations.

24. Earmark: A provision in legislation directing funds to be spent on specific projects or programs, often included in larger appropriations bills. Earmarks can be a way for legislators to secure funding for local initiatives but have faced scrutiny over accountability and transparency issues.

25. Pork barrel legislation: Appropriations that benefit specific local projects, designed to appease constituents and potentially win votes. Pork barrel projects can lead to debates around government spending priorities and fiscal responsibility.

26. Logrolling: The practice of exchanging favors in Congress, where representatives support each other’s proposed legislation, fostering cooperation across party lines. This practice can lead to a higher likelihood of passing beneficial but less popular initiatives.

27. President Pro Tempore: The elected officer of the Senate who presides over the chamber in the absence of the Vice President; typically the senior member of the majority party. Although largely ceremonial, the role includes appointing committee members and overseeing Senate proceedings.

28. Majority leader: The head of the majority party in either chamber of Congress, responsible for directing legislative strategy, scheduling debates, and coordinating party members’ actions. The majority leader plays a critical role in advancing the party's agenda and managing legislative flow.

29. Minority leader: The head of the minority party in Congress, responsible for representing minority interests, organizing opposition against majority party initiatives, and leading the minority party's strategy and communication efforts.

30. Whip: A member of Congress tasked with mobilizing party members for votes and ensuring party discipline. Whips maintain communication between party leadership and congressional members, help count votes, and play a key role in party strategy.

31. Seniority system: A longstanding convention in Congress whereby members with greater length of service are given preference in committee assignments and leadership positions. The seniority system can impact legislative influence and decision-making processes within Congress.

32. Standing committee: A permanent committee responsible for scrutinizing and shaping legislation within specific subject areas (e.g., finance, foreign relations). Standing committees conduct hearings, review bills, and oversee policy implementation.

33. Select committee: A temporary committee formed for a particular purpose or task, such as conducting investigations or addressing specific issues that the standing committees may not handle adequately.

34. Joint committee: A committee consisting of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate, typically established to investigate specific topics or generate recommendations for legislative action.

35. Conference committee: A temporary committee established to reconcile differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill. This committee is crucial for ensuring that both chambers agree on legislation before it is sent to the President for approval.

36. House Ways & Means Committee: A pivotal committee in the House responsible for tax policy, revenue generation, and social security. This committee plays a significant role in shaping the financial priorities of the federal government.

37. Appropriations bill: Legislation that provides the legal authority for government spending on specific programs and services during a fiscal year, often scrutinized and debated extensively in Congress.

38. Government shutdown: The temporary closure of non-essential government offices and services due to a lack of funding, typically resulting from unresolved budget or appropriations negotiations, affecting millions of citizens.

39. Legislative markup/amendment: The process during which committees review, amend, and refine proposed legislation before it is presented for a vote. This critical stage can significantly alter the original proposal and its potential impact.

40. Legislative calendar: A timetable detailing the sessions and activities of Congress, including important deadlines for introducing bills, conducting hearings, and scheduling votes on different legislative measures.

41. Majority: The threshold of more than half of the total votes cast in a decision or election. In Congress, a simple majority is required for most legislation to pass.

42. Supermajority: A higher voting threshold, often requiring more than 50% of the votes, such as 60 votes in the Senate. Supermajorities are necessary for certain actions, including invoking cloture to end a filibuster.

43. Nuclear option: A controversial Senate procedure that allows the majority party to override a filibuster and pass legislation with a simple majority vote, which can change Senate rules regarding debate.

44. Veto: The constitutional power of the President to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law. A veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both chambers of Congress, but overrides are rare.

45. Congressional override: The procedure for Congress to reverse a presidential veto, requiring a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and Senate. Overrides are often politically complex and demonstrate significant bipartisan support.

46. Balanced budget: A fiscal state in which the total revenue equals the total expenditures, resulting in no deficit or surplus. Balanced budgets are often viewed as a desirable goal for fiscal responsibility.

47. Surplus: A financial situation in which government revenue exceeds expenditures, allowing for excess funds that can be utilized for debt reduction, investment in public programs, or savings for future contingencies.

48. Welfare/safety net program: Government programs designed to provide financial assistance and social services to individuals in need, including unemployment benefits, food assistance, and housing support. These programs aim to reduce poverty and provide a safety net for vulnerable populations.

49. Redistricting: The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries following the decennial census to ensure fair representation based on population changes. Redistricting can influence political power dynamics within states.

50. Gerrymandering: The deliberate manipulation of electoral district boundaries to benefit a specific political party or group, thus impacting fair representation and election outcomes. This practice often leads to legal challenges and public debates around electoral fairness.

51. Baker v. Carr: A landmark Supreme Court case that established the “one person, one vote” doctrine by allowing federal courts to intervene in redistricting cases, ensuring equal representation in legislative districts.

52. “One person, one vote” doctrine: The legal principle that mandates electoral districts should have roughly equal populations, ensuring that each individual's vote carries equivalent weight and influence.

53. Shaw v. Reno: A significant Supreme Court case addressing racial gerrymandering, ruling that redistricting plans cannot discriminate based on race, leading to further scrutiny and legal frameworks surrounding electoral district creation.

54. Racial gerrymandering: The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries with the intent to dilute or concentrate the voting power of racial or ethnic groups, raising concerns about fair representation.

55. Majority-minority districts: Electoral districts where the majority of constituents belong to racial or ethnic minority groups, aiming to ensure representation and enhance electoral influence for these communities.

56. Divided government: A political situation where one party controls the presidency while the opposing party controls one or both chambers of Congress, often leading to legislative gridlock and necessitating negotiation between parties.

57. Truncated government: A condition in which certain branches or functions of government are limited or curtailed, often due to fiscal constraints, resulting in an inability to fully execute government responsibilities.

58. Models of representation: Theoretical frameworks that describe how elected officials should engage with their constituents, including approaches such as trustees (acting based on personal judgment), delegates (following constituents’ wishes), partisans (aligning with party ideology), and politicos (a mix of both).

59. Trustees: Representatives who believe they should use their own judgment to make decisions for their constituents, considering broader societal implications, rather than solely acting based on constituent opinions.

60. Delegates: Representatives who prioritize their constituents' direct input and agreements, acting strictly in line with their wishes during decision-making processes in Congress.

61. Partisans: Members of Congress who are firmly aligned with their political party’s views and treat legislative action predominantly through the lens of party interests.

62. Politicos: Legislators who adopt a mixed strategy, balancing personal judgment and constituents’ wishes based on the context of the legislation and political climate.

63. Congressional district: A defined geographical area that elects one representative to the House of Representatives, often shaped by population distribution and demographic characteristics.

64. Single-member district: An electoral district represented by one elected official, ensuring that each representative serves a specific and defined constituency.

65. Incumbent: An individual who currently holds a position or office and is often running for re-election, benefiting from established recognition and existing constituent relationships.

66. Incumbency advantage: The benefits experienced by sitting incumbents over challengers, such as name recognition, previous campaign experience, and established networks facilitating voter outreach.

67. Casework: The assistance provided by members of Congress to their constituents in navigating government services, addressing issues with federal agencies, and facilitating access to resources.

68. Franking: A privilege allowing members of Congress to send mail and communications without charge for official purposes, used to maintain contact with constituents and promote legislative initiatives.

69. Packing: A gerrymandering strategy aimed at concentrating voters of one type into a single district to maximize their voting power, usually to gain electoral advantage.

70. Cracking: A gerrymandering method where a specific group’s voting power is diluted by spreading them across multiple

71. one person one vote: everyone's vote matters the same

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    	backer v carr	shaw v reno
    background	Have no clue what was said here, giberish	north carolina majority minority created created a second majority-minority district issue with the shape of the district ( very narrow and gerrymandered line) racial gerrymandering backward racial gerrmandering district considered illegal gerrymander
    clause	14th Amendment equal protection clause	14 Amendment equal protection clause
    holding	federal can now hear redistricting cases states must redistrict to create population equality every 10 years establishing the one-person-one-vote standard	district illegal bad because race was the sole factor in its creation only aloud to consider race as one of the factors, not allowed to hire or do anything that only considered race cant just circle a group of people and make it a district based solely off race

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