Texas Political Culture and History
Texas Political Culture
Explanation of U.S. and Texas Political Cultures
Political Culture Defined: Consists of the attitudes, values, and beliefs that most people in a political community hold about the proper role of government. It defines the role of government and citizens within it, even if individual opinions are not fully formed.
Types of Political Culture (Daniel J. Elazar - American Federalism: A View from the States, mid-1960s)
Moralistic Subculture:
Politics is seen as a noble activity aimed at achieving a "good society" and promoting the general welfare of all citizens.
Government is a positive instrument for change.
Participation is a responsibility of all citizens.
Individuals seek leadership to serve the public, not for personal gain.
Government has the right and obligation to intervene in private affairs for the "public good or the well-being of the community."
Geographic Concentration: Northern and some Far Western states.
Individualistic Subculture:
Views the democratic order as a marketplace.
Government is created for utilitarian reasons, to handle functions demanded by the people it serves.
Government is not concerned with creating a "good society" and intervention in the private sector should be minimal.
Politics is not a high calling; it's for those willing to "dirty their hands."
Participation is a necessary evil, not an obligation.
Geographic Concentration: Many Midwestern states.
Traditionalistic Subculture:
Primary function is to maintain the existing political order.
Participation is confined to a small, self-perpetuating elite.
The public has limited power and influence; policies benefiting the public are enacted only when the elite permits.
Most policies benefit the ruling elite.
Public political participation is discouraged.
A class-based social structure helps maintain the order.
Geographic Concentration: All old Confederate states.
Texas Political Culture: A Blend
Historical Influences:
Tejanos and descendants: Contributed a strongly traditionalistic culture, rooted in 17^{th} and 18^{th}-century Spanish culture with a dominant landed aristocracy and elite-controlled government.
Southern Anglo settlers of East Texas: Brought a strong traditionalistic culture, an extension of slavery, which persisted post-Civil War. Enslaved African Americans were forced to adopt this culture.
German and Midwestern Anglo settlers of West Texas: Brought a strong individualistic culture. Many came seeking individual opportunities and did not own enslaved people.
Modern Texas Culture: Primarily a traditionalistic culture with aspects of individualistic culture.
Impact on Government: This blend defines:
Basic structure of state government: Relatively limited.
Distribution of power: Divided among many elected officials.
Executive authority: Weak (e.g., the Governor's office).
Legislative power: Most power rests with the state legislature.
Business regulation: Few state regulations, and many benefit specific businesses.
Environmental regulation: Modest.
Political Party Dominance: The state's political culture has remained consistent despite the transition from Democratic to Republican party dominance; there have been "no significant changes in philosophy, ideology, or policy."
Populism, Progressivism, and Other Ideologies
Texas's Ideological Position: A mix of elements from classical liberalism, social conservatism, and populism.
Classical Liberalism
Core Tenets:
Political Components: Emphasizes limited government, rule of law, protection of individual rights.
Economic Components: Advocates for a generally free-market economy.
Associated Figures: John Locke, Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison.
Key Principles:
Support for representative government and civil liberties (e.g., freedom of speech, press, assembly, petition) to control government and secure natural rights.
Rejection of obtrusive government (monarchic or democratic).
Rejection of mercantilism, which held that government should regulate the economy for national wealth and power.
Mercantilism's practices: granted monopolies, subsidized industries, strict regulations, high tariffs.
Classical liberalism viewed this as a means for governments and cronies to increase power against public interest.
Adam Smith's Influence: In The Wealth of Nations, argued that a largely unregulated market (guided by the "invisible hand") would produce wealth, with government providing basic services like limited taxation and courts.
American Context: The American Revolution reflected both political and economic classical liberalism. Economic liberalism became dominant with Jefferson's presidency.
Jeffersonian Ideal: Favored strong state/local governments, weak federal government. Opposed federal intervention in economy (e.g., chartering banks, transportation infrastructure).
Texas Connection: Texan opposition to taxes and government regulation mirrors Jefferson's and Andrew Jackson's distrust of federal government. The state government's role is often seen as providing a healthy business climate and keeping taxes/regulations low, accepting federal aid only for commerce (e.g., roads).
Slogan: "The government is best that governs least."
Modern Relevance: Forms the basis of the Libertarian Party and planks of the Texas Republican Party. Historically, Texans have embraced economic classical liberalism, though some compromise for political/personal advantage.
Social Conservatism
Core Beliefs (in Texas):
Opposition to abortion and same-sex marriage.
Robust protections for religious liberty.
Support for prayer in public schools.
Desire for alternatives to evolution (creationism, intelligent design) taught in public schools.
Uncompromising beliefs, often grounded in religious faith.
Populism
Definition: A difficult term, but a significant part of U.S. political history.
Origins: Arose in the 1880s in the Southern and Western U.S.
Key Demands:
Federal and state government help for small businesses, farmers, and ranchers against large corporations and foreign businesses.
Historical calls for federal regulation of railroad rates and money supply equal to the economy's size.
Distrust of banks and desire for government credit for industrial production and trade unions.
Historically, anti-immigrant.
Rural and small-town movement, supporting more conservative religious values.
Can have an anti-intellectual strain, showing suspicion of experts.
Texas Relevance: The rural anti-union, anti-immigrant, anti-intellectual strain of populism has survived and merged with social conservatism in Texas and other states.
Progressivism (Modern Liberalism)
Perspective: A significant segment of Texans embrace this view.
Core Beliefs:
Less skeptical of government intervention in the economy.
See government as a potent force for good.
Favor a larger social welfare system and more business regulation.
Oppose the agenda of social conservatives.
Political Relevance: Though a minority in Texas, they constitute a large part of the modern Democratic Party and are a potentially growing force.
2020 Primary: Texas voters opted for moderate Joe Biden over progressive Bernie Sanders, indicating the minority status of this ideology statewide.
Post-Reconstruction Texas
Land and Early Economy
Land as an Incentive: Free land offers from Spanish and Mexican governments lured settlers (e.g., one sitio or legua for a family = 4,428 acres; 1,500 acres for a single person).
"GTT": "Gone to Texas" was a common sign for those escaping debt or law.
Historical Significance: Land was crucial in the Texas Revolution (1836) and annexation (1845).
Vastness: Enabled economic diversification, from rich East Texas soil (timber, traditional Southern economy) to oil-rich areas.
Transformation of the Texas Economy
1820s to 1860s: Primarily agricultural, "King Cotton" as the major cash crop.
Post-Civil War: Cattle became the economic mainstay, developing the "cowhand culture" of the frontier Texan.
Oil Discovery (1901, Spindletop field near Beaumont): Transformed Texas in three major ways over the next century:
Agricultural to Industrial Economy: Sparked growth in oil-related and high-tech peripheral industries.
Population Growth and Diversification: Attracted new citizens from U.S. and abroad, bringing diverse ideas.
Rural to Urban Shift: Accelerated demographic transformation.
1900: Less than 20 percent urban.
1950: About 63 percent urban.
1990: More than 80 percent urban.
1970s and early 1980s: Tremendous economic growth due to increased oil prices.
Mid-1980s Recession: Decline in oil prices led to a statewide economic downturn, highlighting the need for diversification away from the old land-based economy.
Economic Diversification Efforts:
NAFTA (1994): Went into effect, promising significant growth through increased trade with Mexico.
High-Tech Industries: Bolstered the economy, especially in Austin, Dallas, and Houston.
Texas Instruments popularizing calculators in the 1970s.
Thriving software, equipment, telecommunications, and semiconductor industries today.
Texas is a leader in scientific and technological research and development.
2020: Texas ranked 2^{nd} among 50 states in total patents granted, after California.
Service Industry Dominance: Now the largest sector of the Texas economy.
Defined industries: trade, transportation, utilities, information, financial activities, real estate, professional and business services, education, health care, leisure, and hospitality.
Employment (November 2021): Service industries employed roughly 11 million people, over half of the private-sector workforce.
Growth Factors: State's strategic location (near Mexico, central U.S.), expanded trade (due to NAFTA and globalization), transportation hub status.
Fueled growth in accounting, legal, computer, construction, engineering, management, health care, education, and leisure/hospitality sectors.
International Trade: Texas is a major trading power.
Led all U.S. states in exports from 2003 to 2020.
2020: Exported 279 billion in goods (California, 2^{nd}, exported 156 billion).
Accounted for 19.5 percent of all U.S. exports.
Major Trading Partners: Mexico (received over 31 percent of Texas's exports in 2020), Canada, China, South Korea, Brazil, Japan, Netherlands.
Texas's Economic Regions (Comptroller's Office 12 regions merged into 6)
East Texas or Piney Woods: Traditionally agriculture, timber, oil; now timber still important, declining oil, some manufacturing diversification.
Plains: Historically agriculture (cotton, wheat, maize) and ranching/cattle feedlots; currently animal production, agriculture, oil/gas extraction, rail/pipeline transportation, food manufacturing.
Gulf Coast: From Corpus Christi to Beaumont/Port Arthur/Orange, including Houston. Dominated by petrochemicals, manufacturing, shipping, fishing; diversified into high-tech. Highest concentration of organized labor unions.
Border Area (South Texas and Rio Grande Valley): From Brownsville to El Paso. Noted for agricultural production (citrus, vegetables). Economy diversified by trade with Mexican border cities, increased by NAFTA.
Metroplex (Dallas–Fort Worth): Financial center of the state. Most economically diversified: banking, manufacturing, high-tech, aerospace industries.
Central Corridor (Midstate): From College Station to Waco, Austin, and San Antonio. Dominated by three large state universities (University of Texas at Austin, Texas A&M University, Texas State University), high-tech industries (Austin, San Antonio), and major military bases (Waco/Temple/Killeen, San Antonio).
Texas Politics: From Democrat to Republican
Democratic Party Dominance (End of Reconstruction to mid-1970s):
Progressive Era: Third parties (Greenback, Farmers Alliance, Populists) challenged Democrats, pushing for government intervention in the economy.
Democrats responded by adopting many progressive reforms into their platform, leading to a one-party state with Progressive and Conservative Democrats.
"Yellow Dog Democrat": Term describing Texans who would only vote for Democratic candidates.
Oil Industry: Shaped state and local politics from 1920s through WWII.
Conservative Democrats: Often aligned with the national Republican Party (e.g., Texas supported Herbert Hoover in 1928, one of only 4 times a Republican presidential candidate was favored before the mid-1970s).
Great Depression: Soured Texans on Republicans. New Deal programs brought them back to Democrats.
Post-WWII Shift: National Democratic Party's increased federal role (New Deal, Fair Deal, Great Society) alienated conservative Texas Democrats, who began to withhold support in national races. This coincided with liberal Democrats gaining influence in the Texas party.
Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s): Pushed socially conservative Democrats away from the party and toward Republicans.
Rise of the Republican Party:
John Tower's Election (1961): First Republican to represent Texas in the U.S. Senate since 1870, marking the beginning of the shift.
Presidential Elections: Majority of Texas voters supported Richard Nixon (1972), then consistently voted Republican in presidential elections starting with Ronald Reagan (1980).
State Level Shift: Pattern evolved to supporting Republican candidates for state offices (e.g., Bill Clements for governor in 1978) and eventually local offices.
Full Republican Ascendancy (1994-2002):
1994 realignment swept away Democratic majorities nationally.
Anglo male voters, businesses, and conservatives supported Republican candidates at all levels.
1998: All statewide elective officeholders were Republicans.
2002: Texas House of Representatives gained a Republican majority for the first time, partly due to redistricting.
Challenges for the Democratic Party Today:
Many likely Democratic voters are unregistered or do not vote.
Redistricting has virtually guaranteed Republican majorities in state and federal representative races.
"Battleground Texas" PAC (2013): Launched to revitalize the Democratic Party in the state, but has had mixed success.
Republican Governor Greg Abbott defeated Democratic gubernatorial nominees Wendy Davis (2014) and Lupe Valdez (2018).
All statewide executive branch officials are Republican.
Beto O'Rourke Effect (2018): Sparked enthusiasm, came within 3 points of defeating Ted Cruz for Senate, leading to potential Democratic gains in traditionally Republican suburbs.
2020 Election: Mixed results. Trump carried Texas by a smaller margin than in 2016. Republican Senator John Cornyn outperformed Trump. Democrats gained with white women in suburbs, but Republicans made significant gains with Hispanic American voters, especially in South Texas.
2022 Redistricting and Elections: Texas gained two new federal congressional districts (37th designed as safe Democratic, 38th as relatively safe Republican). Majority of state and federal districts remain Republican-leaning, maintaining GOP control of the Texas House. Greg Abbott won a third term as governor by over 10 percentage points against Beto O'Rourke.
Demographics: The Road to Majority-Minority
Demography: Statistical characteristics of a population, typically from the U.S. Census (conducted every 10 years).
Population Standing: Texas ranks 2^{nd} in both total land size and population among the 50 states.
Explosive Population Growth:
1970: 11.2 million.
1990: Almost 17 million.
2010: 25,145,561 (official Census).
2021: 29,527,941 (estimate), an increase of about 5.4 million residents over 11 years.
Growth attributed to birthrates and newcomers from other states and countries.
National Political Impact: Texas gained 4 seats in U.S. House after 2010 Census, and 2 more seats after 2020 Census, for a total of 38 seats.
Urban and Rural Dynamics
Increasingly Urban: Images of Texas are rural, but the reality is urban.
U.S. Census Bureau Definitions:
Urbanized Areas (UAs): 50,000 or more people.
Urban Clusters (UCs): At least 2,500 but less than 50,000 people.
Rural: All population, housing, and territory not in an urban area.
Rural Population Decline:
1980: 20.4 percent of Texans lived in rural areas.
2000: 17.5 percent.
2020: Less than 15 percent.
Projection: Over the next 40 years, urban areas are projected to grow much more rapidly.
Congressional Districts: New districts (37th and 38th) reflect drastic population growth in urban and suburban areas.
Majority-Minority State
Status: Since 2004, Texas has been a "majority-minority" state, meaning racial and ethnic minority groups constitute a majority of the population.
Non-Hispanic White Population: 41.2 percent of the total state population as of 2021, making them a numerical minority.
Public School Enrollments:
2001-2002: Hispanic American students first outnumbered whites.
2020-2021: Hispanic American enrollment was 52.9 percent; white enrollment declined to 26.5 percent.
Hispanic/Latino Population Growth and Impact:
Growth: Steadily increased due to immigration from Mexico.
1960: 15 percent.
1970: 18 percent.
1980: 21 percent.
1990: 25 percent.
2021: 39.7 percent of total state population.
Government Definition of "Hispanic"/"Latino":
First usage in 1970s for data collection regarding "Americans of Spanish origin or descent."
Originally defined as people of Spanish-speaking background tracing origin to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central/South America, and other Spanish-speaking countries.
"Hispanic" first appeared on Census forms in 1980.
1997 OMB revised definition to include "Spanish cultures" and began using "Latino" concurrently.
Latino may be more inclusive (e.g., Brazil), or associated with age/political affiliation.
Membership based solely on self-identification; no proof required.
Race is a separate classification: People can be Hispanic/Latino and "of any race" (though over half of Hispanic adults surveyed consider their Hispanic background part of both origin and race).
Political Success: Increased voter turnout in border areas, South Texas, and San Antonio.
Elected officials to local, state legislature, and Congress.
Raul Gonzalez (1984): First Hispanic American appointed/elected to statewide office (Texas Supreme Court).
Dan Morales (1990): State Attorney General.
Tony Sanchez (2002): First Hispanic American major-party candidate for governor.
Ted Cruz (2012): First Hispanic American sent to U.S. Senate.
George P. Bush (2015): Commissioner of the General Land Office (mother is Mexican-born U.S. citizen).
Carlos Cascos (2015): Appointed Texas secretary of state.
Sylvia Garcia and Veronica Escobar (2018): First two Hispanic women elected to the U.S. House from Texas.
Republican Gains: In 2020, Republicans made significant gains with Hispanic Americans, particularly in the Rio Grande Valley.
African American Population:
Demographics: Remained fairly constant (approx. 12.8 percent of population in 2019).
Concentration: Three metropolitan areas: Houston, Dallas–Fort Worth, and Austin.
Political Success: Elected to local offices, state legislature, and U.S. Congress.
Al Green (Houston): Influential representative.
Will Hurd (Southern Texas): Black Republican member of Congress (until 2020).
Morris Overstreet (1990-1999): First African American elected to statewide office (Texas Court of Criminal Appeals).
Michael L. Williams (1999): First African American appointed to Texas Railroad Commission (subsequently elected three times).
Wallace B. Jefferson (2001): First African American to sit on Texas Supreme Court, served as first Black Chief Justice (2004-2013).
Dale Wainwright (2002): Elected to Texas Supreme Court.
Ron Kirk (2002): Popular Dallas mayor, lost U.S. Senate race.
Asian American Population:
Demographics: Less than 1 percent in 1980, grew to 5.2 percent by 2019, predicted to be fastest-growing ethnic group.
Concentration: Mostly Houston area (Chinese), Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex, and Killeen (Korean).
Subgroups: Asian Indian, Vietnamese, and Chinese populations growing; notable shares of Filipino, Korean, and Pakistani Americans.
Political Success: Elected local officials in Houston (city council, county court of law judge).
Martha Wong (2002): Represented Houston in Texas statehouse (second Asian American, first Republican of Asian descent).
Hubert Vo (2004): First Vietnamese American elected as state representative.
Tom Lee (San Antonio): First Asian American elected to Texas House.
Religion in Texas
Historical Influences: Roman Catholic (Spanish/Mexican roots) and conservative Protestantism (Anglo settlers).
Affiliation: Approximately 82 percent of Texans affiliate with a religious tradition.
Christian Majority: About 3 in 4 Texans identify as Christian.
Protestants: 50 percent.
Catholics: 23 percent (resurgence due to Latin American immigration; political positions don't neatly align with one party).
Increasing Religious Diversity:
Non-Christian Religions Growth: Due to immigration from Asia and in-migration.
Current Estimates: About 420,000 Muslim Americans, 50,000 Sikhs. Several Buddhist and Hindu temples.
Anti-Semitism: Resurgence around the country. Beth Israel Synagogue hostage crisis (January 15, 2022) in Dallas-Fort Worth suburb.
Islamophobia: Incidents like the burning of Victoria Islamic Center (January 28, 2017).
Political Activism: Muslim Americans in Texas are becoming politically active, e.g., Muslim Capitol Day since 2003.
Flags of Texas: From Spain to Statehood
Early Settlement and Six Flags
Native American Groups: Caddo (eastern), Wichita (Red River Valley), Karankawa (coastal plains), Comanche, Apache, Kiowa, Tonkawa (western).
Six Governing Countries/Flags: Spain, France, the Republic of Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the United States of America, and the Confederate States of America. Each influenced Texas's political, social, economic, religious, and cultural development.
Spain
First European Claim: Alonso Álvarez de Pineda mapped the Texas coastline as early as 1519.
Interior Survey: Francisco Vásquez de Coronado surveyed the interior in 1540.
Abandonment and Return: After dispelling treasure rumors, Spain abandoned Texas for ~150 years. Returned to increase settlement efforts (missions, presidios) after French claims.
Tejanos: Spanish settlers from Mexico, first settling the Rio Grande Valley, then as far north/east as San Antonio.
Spanish Influence: Place names (rivers, geographic features, cities), introduction of horses, sheep, cattle, and legal systems (community property, homestead exemption).
Decline: Spanish-Mexican relations deteriorated, leading to Mexico's independence in 1821.
France, Briefly
Claim: France claimed the Mississippi River system and parts of Spanish claims.
La Salle's Failed Expedition (1685): Overshot New Orleans, landed near Matagorda Bay, established Fort Saint Louis. Failed due to inadequate supplies and poor leadership. La Salle was killed by his men (1687). Karankawa destroyed the fort (1688).
The Republic of Mexico
Formation: Included what was Spanish Texas. Texas was combined with Coahuila to form Coahuila and Texas in 1824.
Immigration: Continued the empresario land-grant system, attracting Southern U.S. Anglos and their enslaved people, who were Protestant and culturally different from the existing Spanish Catholic settlers.
Antislavery Movement: Mexico had a strong one.
Causes of Rebellion: Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna declared himself dictator, limiting property rights and economic freedom for Anglos, leading to calls for revolt.
Open Revolt (Late 1835): Began with a fight over a cannon in Gonzales, inspiring the "Come and Take It" flag.
Key Events:
Siege of the Alamo (February - March 6, 1836): Santa Anna's forces besieged the mission-fortress in San Antonio. All 187 Texan defenders died, providing motivation for independence.
Texas Declaration of Independence (March 2, 1836): Declared just before the Alamo's fall.
Goliad Massacre: Santa Anna captured and killed 350 of James Fannin's troops (March 27, 1836).
The Republic of Texas
Survival: Immediate problem was surviving the war with Mexico. Gen. Sam Houston needed time to train troops.
"Runaway Scrape": Texans and forces retreated ahead of Santa Anna's army.
Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836): Houston defeated and captured Santa Anna's army, forcing him to sign the Treaty of Velasco, recognizing Texas's independence.
Challenges as a Republic (1836-1845):
Debt and Infrastructure: Limited resources, debt-bound, struggled to meet obligations.
Relations with Mexico: Poor relations and border disputes.
Indigenous Hostilities: Open hostilities with Native American groups in the west.
Call for Statehood: Houston, as the first president, petitioned the U.S. government for statehood, but it was denied due to the divisive issue of slavery (balancing free vs. slave states).
Immigration Promotion: Texas actively sought immigrants by offering land to stabilize its economy, increase population, and protect unpopulated regions.
Adelsverein Society: Aided German immigration; brought over 7,000 Germans to Texas by 1847 (settled mainly in Hill Country, like Fredericksburg).
The Twenty-Eighth State of the Union (United States of America)
Manifest Destiny: Gaining popularity in the U.S., advocating for a nation stretching from Atlantic to Pacific.
Annexation (December 29, 1845): President Polk signed the act making Texas the 28^{th} state.
Terms of Annexation: Texas retained its public debt and public lands, forcing the U.S. government to buy land designated as federal.
Compromise of 1850: Settled Texas's boundary lines, with the U.S. government purchasing lands that became parts of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma from Texas.
Civil War and Reconstruction: A Time of Transition
Texas's Decision to Secede
Support for Secession: Majority of Texans, including notable figures like Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, Francis Lubbock, Edward Clark.
Motivation: Staunchly in favor of preserving slavery, feared Abraham Lincoln's policies and the Republican Party.
Unionists: Few, most notably Sam Houston, who believed Texas should remain faithful to the Union despite favoring slavery. He was evicted from governorship for not supporting the Confederacy.
Effects of the Civil War
Economic Impact: Texas's economy was less devastated than other Confederate states due to political and geographical factors.
Political: Napoleon III's French intervention in Mexico (1861) and U.S. threats kept France from fully committing to Confederate support.
Geography: Anglo southerners had few substantial settlements west of the Balcones Escarpment (natural geological feature). The dry, arid plains were not conducive to plantation culture or sustaining invading armies.
Native American presence (Comanche, Lipan Apache, Kiowa, Tonkawa) reemerged in the region after U.S. Army forts were abandoned during the war, dominating until Chief Quanah Parker's capture in 1875.
Important Texas Civil War Events:
Battle of Sabine Pass (1863): Small Confederate force prevented a larger Union invasion.
Battle of Galveston (1863): Confederate forces recaptured Galveston and seized a U.S. ship.
Union Blockade: Of the Texas coast.
Gen. Henry Sibley's March: Attempted to take New Mexico and federal territories for the Confederacy.
Battle of Palmito Ranch: Final land conflict of the war, fought over a month after Lee's surrender.
Human Cost: Roughly 90,000 Texans served; lives lost, time, and money wasted damaged Texas and the nation.
Reconstruction in Texas
Union Goals (Beginning 1865):
Restore law and order, readmit southern states.
Dismantle slavery.
Emancipation in Texas: Union Gen. Gordon Granger issued General Order Number 3 in Galveston (June 19, 1865), declaring all enslaved people free. This is the origin of "Juneteenth."
Constitutional Amendments Protecting African Americans:
Thirteenth Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery.
Fourteenth Amendment (1868): Declared formerly enslaved people American citizens, mandated equal protection and due process, and barred former Confederate leaders from federal office.
Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Gave Black men the right to vote.
Culture Clash: Between Confederate sympathizers (Southern Democrats wanting to maintain pre-war status quo) and Union supporters (Republican "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags").
Constitutions During Reconstruction:
1866 Constitution: Abolished slavery, nullified secession ordinances, renounced future secession, refused state's wartime debt. Short-lived.
1869 ("Carpetbagger's") Constitution: Result of congressional actions and military rule. Drastic departure, granted African Americans the right to vote, disenfranchised white people who participated in the Civil War.
Rejoining the Union: Texas formally rejoined in 1870.
Republican Governorship: Republican Edmund Jackson Davis became governor in 1870, but his administration was controversial and unpopular (taxes, government expenditures).
Southern Democrats Regain Control (1874): Election of Richard Coke led to a new constitutional convention.
1876 Constitution: Reflected strong distrust of government institutions and heavy emphasis on citizen freedoms. Still the outline of fundamental law for Texas, though heavily amended. Marked the beginning of 100 years of one-party Democratic politics.
Loss of Rights: African Americans lost many rights gained during Reconstruction, which were not restored until the civil rights movement of the 1960s.
Challenges in Texas
Challenges to the Texas Economy
2008 Financial Crisis and Recession: Texas weathered it better than many other large states due to its diversified economy (energy, agriculture, trade, professional/business/general services) and business-friendly policies. Texas entered later and emerged faster.
2010s Growth: Texas had one of the strongest economies. Four Texas cities (Austin, Houston, Dallas–Fort Worth, San Antonio) led the country in recession recovery. Corporations like Toyota, Oracle, HP, PGA of America, and Tesla relocated headquarters to Texas due to tax-friendly policies.
Urban/Suburban Intensification: Population growth (140,000 people expanded in five major cities in 8 years) led to increased gridlock, congested interstates, gentrification, new construction, housing developments, and sharp increases in home prices.
COVID-19 Impact:
First case confirmed February 13, 2020. Governor Greg Abbott declared a state of disaster (March 13).
Major cities closed bars, banned in-person dining. Evictions halted, border closed, social gatherings limited, medical procedures postponed, nursing home visits curtailed, quarantines for out-of-state travelers.
Unemployment: Jumped to 12.9 percent by April 2020.
Reopening and Mask Mandate: Texas reopened earlier than many Democratic states (May 2020), but a spike in cases in June led Abbott to order a statewide mask mandate.
Tension: Between Abbott (concerned about the economy) and liberal cities (implementing stricter safety measures).
Recovery: Unemployment dropped to 8.1 percent by December 2020. Vaccine rollout in 2021 aided recovery. Unemployment decreased to 6.5 percent (May 2021) and 5 percent (December 2021).
Economic Indicators (Early 2022): 13.06 million nonagricultural jobs (exceeding pre-pandemic levels). GDP stood at 1.8 trillion, back to pre-pandemic levels.
Emerging Problems (2022): Supply chain issues, shortages (e.g., baby formula), significant inflation, strains on education, expensive housing market, worker shortage for low-paying jobs. Political tensions intensified regarding government's COVID-19 response.
National Issues (Income, Poverty, Education)
Income and Poverty:
Texas incomes generally run slightly lower than the national mean; poverty rates are higher.
Per Capita Personal Income (Q3 2021): Texas: 58,542; National average: 62,866.
Median Household Income (2021): Texas: 61,874; National average: 62,843.
Poverty Rate (2021): Texas: 13.4 percent; U.S. overall: 11.4 percent.
Education:
Rising high school graduation rates for seven consecutive years (on-time rate for class of 2020 was 90.3 percent), though some skeptics suggest data manipulation.
Texas lags behind the national average in adults (25 or older) with high school diplomas or bachelor's degrees.
Poverty and Attainment: Economically disadvantaged students had a lower graduation rate (87.5 percent in 2018) than those not disadvantaged (93.5 percent). Dropout rates were higher among Hispanic and African American students.
Immigration and In-Migration
Two Types of Migration: In-migration (from other U.S. states) and immigration (from other countries).
In-Migration:
Push and Pull Factors: Economic, social, and political trends in other states (push) and Texas's inexpensive housing market, appealing natural/business climate (pull) attract people.
Texas is growing at a rate of 1,000 people per day. 29 percent of population growth since 2010 is from in-migration.
Origin States: Traditionally Rust Belt states (Ohio, Michigan, New York), California, and Florida.
More recently, California and Florida have outpaced others, particularly high-tech workers and those escaping Florida's housing market issues.
2019 Top Origin States: California (82,235), Florida (41,238), Louisiana (24,513), Georgia (24,209), Illinois (23,747), Oklahoma (23,535), New Mexico (23,425).
Immigration:
Texas as an Attractive Location: Due to its long contiguous border with Mexico.
Mexico as Leading Origin: Traditionally for both legal and unauthorized immigrants. In 2019, U.S. admitted 153,502 legal immigrants from Mexico.
Unauthorized Immigrants: Estimated 1.9 million in Texas (of 5.4 million Mexicans in U.S. in 2018).
Recent Trends: Post-recession saw more Mexican immigrants returning home, but this reversed by 2018. Surges of unauthorized immigrants from Mexico and Central America under Trump and Biden administrations.
Political Impact: The influx correlates with Republican gains among Hispanics in Southern Texas who desire tighter border security. Governor Greg Abbott launched a state-funded border wall.
Asian Immigration: Asian Americans are the fastest-growing ethnic group in Texas, projected to increase rapidly. Subgroups include Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Pakistani Americans.
Increasing Religious Diversity in Texas
Christianity Remains Dominant: About 70 percent of Americans are Christian, with 22 percent unaffiliated. Texas is largely Christian (Protestant and Catholic).
Non-Christian Religions Growth: Before the Hart-Cellar Act of 1965 (overturned immigration restrictions), few Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, or Sikhs. These religions are now growing due to immigration from Asia and in-migration.
Current Estimates: About 420,000 Muslim Americans and 50,000 Sikhs in Texas. Buddhist and Hindu temples in urban areas.
Challenges and Activism:
Anti-Semitism: Resurgence nationwide. Example: Beth Israel Synagogue hostage crisis (January 15, 2022) in Dallas-Fort Worth suburb.
Islamophobia: Incidents like the burning of Victoria Islamic Center (January 28, 2017).
Muslim Americans in Politics: Becoming politically active, e.g., Muslim Capitol Day since 2003 to lobby for civil liberties and political issues.