AP European History Spring 2016 Final Exam Review Notes

French Revolution

• Country: The French Revolution occurred in France.
• Influence of American Revolution: The American Revolution and the creation of the United States influenced the French Revolution.
• Estates General: Louis XVI called for a meeting of the Estates General.
• Social Class: The social class that began the French Revolution was the Third Estate, with the Tennis Court Oath and the writing of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
• Declaration of the Rights of Man: A document outlining the basic rights and liberties of citizens.
• Reign of Terror: A period of intense political repression and violence during the French Revolution.
• Governments: Types of government during the French Revolution included the monarchy under Louis XVI, the National Assembly, the Directory, and the Consulate under Napoleon.
• Napoleon's Rule: Napoleon ruled over France.
• Rise to Power: Napoleon became the emperor of France through a coup d'état.
• Napoleon's Reforms: Napoleon brought about reforms for France, including legal and administrative changes known as the Napoleonic Code.
• Contradictions: Napoleon went against the ideas of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment by establishing an empire and limiting individual freedoms.
• Invasion of Russia: Napoleon invaded Russia because Tsar Alexander I withdrew from the Continental System. The invasion failed due to the harsh winter and logistical challenges.
• Grand Alliance: The countries that made up the Grand Alliance that defeated Napoleon included Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

• Defeated Nation: The Congress of Vienna met in 1815 after the defeat of France under Napoleon.
• Great Powers: The Great Powers that attended the Congress of Vienna were Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and France.
  • A Great Power is a nation-state that is able to exert its influence on a global scale.
• Influential Leader: Klemens von Metternich of Austria was considered the most influential leader at the Congress of Vienna.
• Goals: The goals of the Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna were to restore the balance of power in Europe, prevent future French aggression, and restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.
• Principle of Legitimacy: The principle of legitimacy is the idea of restoring monarchs to their thrones. The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France, Spain, and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
• Balance of Power: Balance of power refers to maintaining a distribution of power among nations to prevent any one nation from dominating Europe.
• Principle of Intervention: The principle of intervention is the idea that the Great Powers had the right to intervene in other countries to suppress revolutions and maintain order.
  • Examples include the suppression of revolts in Spain and Italy.

Ideologies and Movements

• Liberalism: The political philosophy of liberalism appealed to the middle class.
• Nationalism: The belief that people are bonded together through a common culture.
• Romanticism: Characteristics of romanticism include an emphasis on emotion, individualism, and the glorification of the past and nature.
• Latin American Independence: Ideas and events that stimulated the Latin American independence movements included the Enlightenment, the American Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars.
• Frankfurt Assembly (1848): The Frankfurt Assembly of the German States in 1848 was an attempt to create a unified German nation-state.
  • The purpose was writing a constitution for a unified Germany.
  • It was ultimately unsuccessful due to disagreements among its members and the opposition of the conservative Prussian monarchy.

Industrial Revolution

• First Industrial Nation: Great Britain was the first European nation to industrialize.
• Factors Aiding Great Britain: Factors that aided Great Britain in becoming the first industrialized nation included natural resources (coal and iron), a stable government, a strong financial system, and a large colonial empire.
• First Industry: The textile industry was the first to be industrialized in Great Britain.
• Power Source: The main power source of the First Industrial Revolution was steam.
• James Watt's Invention: James Watt's invention of the steam engine was vital to the Industrial Revolution.
• Monopoly on Technology: Great Britain attempted to keep their monopoly on industrial technology and inventions by restricting the emigration of skilled workers and the export of machinery.
• Industrial Workers: The new class of industrial workers consisted of former agricultural workers, women, and children.
  • Working conditions of the industrial working class were poor, with long hours, low wages, and dangerous environments.
  • A labor union is an organization of workers that seeks to protect their rights and interests.
  • Industrial workers were generally not able to create unions during the early stages of the First Industrial Revolution.

Crimean War and Unification Movements

• Eastern Question: The “Eastern Question” referred to the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
  • The Ottoman Empire was known as the “Sick Man of Europe”.
• Crimean War: England and France went to war with Russia in the Crimean War.
• Reasons for Crimean War: England and France went to war with Russia to prevent Russian expansion into the Ottoman Empire and to protect their own strategic and economic interests in the region.
• Outcomes of Crimean War: Results of the Crimean War included the defeat of Russia, the weakening of the Concert of Europe, and the rise of nationalism in the Balkans.
• Italian Unification:
  • Piedmont took the lead in the Italian Unification movement.
  • The Prime Minister of Piedmont who engineered the Italian Unification movement was Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour.
  • Austria was the dominant foreign power needed to be removed from the Italian Peninsula during the unification period.
  • France occupied the Papal States and left during the Franco-Prussian War.
  • Rome became the capital city of the unified Italian nation in 1871.
• Zollverein: The Zollverein was a customs union of German states that promoted economic cooperation and trade.
• German Unification:
  • Austria was the strongest political rival of Prussia during the German unification movement.
  • Otto von Bismarck was the chancellor of Prussia during the German Unification period.
  • The Franco-Prussian War was fought between France and Prussia.
• Results of Franco-Prussian War: Results of the Franco-Prussian War included the defeat of France, the creation of the German Empire, and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany.
• Kulturkampf: The Kulturkampf was Bismarck's campaign against the Catholic Church in Germany.
• Bismarck and Socialism: Bismarck attempted to outlaw socialism in Germany through anti-socialist laws.
• Reforms Under Alexander II: Major reforms for Russia under Czar Alexander II included the emancipation of the serfs.

Intellectual and Scientific Developments

• Karl Marx:
  • According to Karl Marx, economic forces were key to understanding the changes of history.
  • According to Karl Marx, the final result of the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would be a communist revolution and the establishment of a classless society.
• Charles Darwin: Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory proposes that species evolve over time through natural selection.
• Realism: Realist painters and authors emphasized depicting the world as it is, with a focus on everyday life and social issues.
• Second Industrial Revolution:
  • The new power source of the Second Industrial Revolution was electricity.
  • Germany became the industrial leader of Europe during the Second Industrial Revolution.
  • Steel was the new building material developed during the Second Industrial Revolution.
• Friedrich Nietzsche: Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical ideas included the concept of the Übermensch (Superman) and the rejection of traditional morality.
• Social Darwinism: Social Darwinism is the application of Darwinian principles to human society, often used to justify social inequality and imperialism.
• Theodor Herzl: Theodor Herzl promoted Zionism with his Zionist Movement.
  • Zionism is the movement to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Imperialism

• Justifications for Imperialism: European nations used arguments such as the “white man’s burden” to justify imperialism.
  • The “white man’s burden” is the idea that Europeans had a duty to civilize and Christianize non-European peoples.
• Regions of Focus: Regions that were focuses of European imperialism during the 19th century included Africa and Asia.
• Largest Colonial Empire: Great Britain had the largest colonial empire by 1901.
• Crown Jewel: India was considered to be the crown jewel of the British Empire.
  • A buffer zone is a neutral area separating rival powers.
• Realpolitik: Realpolitik is a political philosophy based on practical considerations rather than ideology moral.
• Bismarck's Concerns: Bismarck did not want France and Russia to become political and military allies because he feared that they would encircle Germany.
• Alliance Systems:
  *Major alliance systems created by Bismarck designed to protect Germany and isolate France:
  * Dual Alliance: Germany and Austria-Hungary (1879).
  * Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (1882).
  * Reinsurance Treaty: Germany and Russia (1887).
  * Mediterranean Agreements: Agreements involving Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Spain to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean.
• Weltpolitik: Weltpolitik is the foreign policy adopted by Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II, which aimed to assert Germany's power and influence on the world stage.
• Balkan Peninsula: The Balkan Peninsula was considered the powder keg of Europe due to ethnic tensions, nationalist rivalries, and the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
• Bosnian Crisis of 1908: The Bosnian Crisis of 1908 was the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary.
  • It resulted in increased tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia and further destabilized the Balkans.
• Spark of WWI: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the spark or immediate cause of the First World War.

World War I

• Assassination Location: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand occurred in Sarajevo.
• Blank Check: The “blank check” issued by Germany to Austria was a promise of unconditional support in whatever action Austria-Hungary chose to take against Serbia.
• Declarations of War:
  • Austria-Hungary was the first country to declare war in the First World War, declaring war on Serbia.
  • Germany was the second country to declare war in the First World War, declaring war on Russia and France.
• Great Britain's Declaration: Great Britain declared war on Germany because Germany violated Belgian neutrality.
• Allied Powers: Major countries that were members of the Allied Powers during the First World War included Great Britain, France, Russia (until 1917), Italy (from 1915), and the United States (from 1917).
• Central Powers: Countries that were members of the Central Powers during the First World War included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
• Schlieffen Plan: The Schlieffen Plan was Germany's plan to quickly defeat France by invading through Belgium before turning to fight Russia.
  • It resulted in the violation of Belgian neutrality and drew Great Britain into the war and ultimately failed.
• Total War: “Total war” refers to a conflict in which a nation devotes all of its resources to the war effort.
  • Actions taken by European governments during the First World War that illustrate the concept of total war included conscription, rationing, and the mobilization of the economy.
• Propaganda: The primary purposes of propaganda during the First World War were to rally public support for the war effort, demonize the enemy, and encourage enlistment.
• No Man's Land: The area between the trenches on the western front was called “no man’s land”.
• Attrition: Attrition is when a country was trying to wear down the army of the other side and cause them to quit fighting.
• US Position: The official position of the United States at the beginning of WWI and lasting until 1917 was neutrality.
• Support for Bolsheviks: Germany supported the initial development of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia.
• Allied Nation Withdrawal: Russia dropped out of WWI because of a communist revolution and a civil war.
• Bolshevik Leader: Vladimir Lenin led the Bolsheviks in becoming a political party dedicated to the overthrow of the government in Russia and the creation of a communist government.
• US Entry: Unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany and the Zimmerman telegram eventually pulled the United States into WWI.
• US Side: The United States joined the Allied Powers in WWI.

Post-WWI and Interwar Period

• Winners of WWI: The Allied Powers won WWI.
• Big Four: The countries that made up the “Big Four” at the Paris Peace Conferences after the end of the First World War were the United States, Great Britain, France, and Italy.
• Reparations: The payments Germany was forced to pay to cover the costs of WWI of the Allied powers called reparations.
• Treaty of Versailles: Germany was forced to accept blame for the war, lost territory, and had to pay reparations as a result of the Treaty of Versailles.
• Dawes Plan: The Dawes Plan was an attempt to resolve the reparations crisis by providing loans to Germany to help it meet its payment obligations.
• Great Depression: The stock market crash of 1929 brought about the worldwide Depression of the 1930s.
• Hitler's Party: The political party led by Hitler was the Nazi Party.
• Mein Kampf: Major themes expressed in Hitler’s book, Mein Kampf, included anti-Semitism, nationalism, and the need for Lebensraum (living space) for the German people.
• Hitler's Rise to Power: Major events and conditions that contributed to Hitler’s rise to power in Germany included economic hardship, political instability, and resentment over the Treaty of Versailles.
• Enabling Act: The Reichstag fire allowed for the passage of the Enabling Act, that gave Hitler dictatorial powers.
• Hitler's Economic Policies: Hitler took actions such as rearmament and public works projects to pull Germany out of the Great Depression.
• Russian Civil War: The two sides that fought in the Russian Civil War were the Bolsheviks (Reds) and the anti-Bolsheviks (Whites).
• New Economic Policy: The New Economic Policy was used by Lenin after the Russian Civil War.
• Collectivization: The collectivization policy pursued by Stalin after the death of Lenin involved the forced consolidation of individual farms into collective farms.
• Five Year Plans: The Fiver Year Plans enforced by Stalin for the Soviet Union were aimed at rapid industrialization and economic development.
• Dada Art Movement: Characteristics of the Dada art movement included a rejection of reason and logic, and an embrace of chaos and irrationality.
• Hitler's Violations of the Treaty: Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles in the 1930s after becoming the dictator of Germany by rearming Germany and remilitarizing the Rhineland.
• League of Nations: The League of Nations was an international organization created after WWI to maintain global peace.
  • Collective security is a system in which member states agree to defend one another against attack.
• Appeasement: Appeasement is a policy of making concessions to an aggressor in order to avoid war.
• Munich Pact of 1938: The Munich Pact of 1938 was an agreement between Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy that allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.

World War II

• Results of Munich Pact: The Munich Pact resulted in the annexation of the Sudetenland by Germany and the further weakening of Czechoslovakia.
• Non-Aggression Pact: Germany and the Soviet Union signed a nonaggression pact in August 1939.
• Start of WWII: According the many historians, the Second World War began in Europe when Germany invaded Poland.
• US Entry into WWII: The immediate cause for the United States entry into the Second World War was the attack on Pearl Harbor.
• US Side in WWII: The United States joined the Allied Powers in the Second World War.
• Allied Powers: Countries that made up the Allied Powers in the Second World War included Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and China.
• Axis Powers: Countries that made up the Axis Powers in the Second World War included Germany, Italy, and Japan.
• Turning Points in Europe: Major battles that were considered to be turning points for the Allies in the European theater against Germany included the Battle of Stalingrad and D-Day.
• US Strategies Against Japan: Offensive strategies used by the United States to defeat Japan included island hopping.
  *Island hopping is a strategy of selectively attacking and capturing key islands to advance towards Japan.
• Turning Point in Pacific Theater: The Battle of Midway was considered the turning point in the Pacific Theater because it gave the US naval supremacy over Japan.
• Holocaust: The Holocaust was the systematic genocide of Jews and other minority groups by the Nazis during World War II.
• Atomic Bombs: The United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• Winners of WWII: The Allied Powers won the Second World War.

Cold War

• New International Organization: The new international organization created at the end of WWII to maintain global peace is the United Nations.
• Superpowers: At the conclusion of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union were considered superpowers.
• Cold War: The period of time called when the United States and the Soviet Union never directly fought each other but conflicted over global and regional influence.
• US Ideology: The ideology of the United States that it attempted to spread during the Cold War was democracy and capitalism.
• Soviet Ideology: The ideology of the Soviet Union that it attempted to spread during the Cold War was communism.
• Yalta Conference: Major decisions of the Allied Powers at the Yalta Conference included the division of Germany and the establishment of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe.
• Marshall Plan: The United States plan invested approximately 13 billion into western Europe to help rebuild those countries' economies and stop the spread of communism was the Marshall Plan.
• Divided Country: Germany became divided as a result of the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.
• Truman Doctrine: During the Truman administration, the United States adopted the policy to stop the spread of communism, known as the Truman Doctrine.
• Response to Berlin Blockade: The United States and the west European Allies responded to Stalin’s blockade of the city of Berlin with the Berlin Airlift.
• NATO: The organization that the United States help create to act as defensive alliance against the Soviet Union in Europe known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
• Warsaw Pact: The response of the Soviet Union to the formation of NATO by the United States and West European nations was the Warsaw Pact.
• Space Race: After the launching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union, the Cold War officially extended into space.
• Berlin Wall: In 1961 the main reason for East Germany and the Soviet Union building the Berlin Wall to prevent East Germans from fleeing to West Germany.
• End of Cuban Missile Crisis: Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to remove US missiles from Turkey and Soviet missiles from Cuba to end the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Social and Intellectual Movements

• Feminist Movement: Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan contributed to the beginning of the Feminist Movement of the 1950s and the 1960s through their writings on women's rights and gender equality.
• Abstract Expressionism: Abstract expressionism is a post–World War II art movement, developed in New York in the 1940s. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve international influence and put New York City at the center of the Western art world.
  • Action painting is a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously dribbled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than being carefully applied.
• Pop Art: Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and in the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular and mass culture, such as advertising, comic books and mundane cultural objects.