MUST KNOW TERMS (1815-1914)

Below are detailed definitions for all the terms, events, and people you provided for the period 1815–1914, formatted in the plain text structure you requested (no bullet points). Each entry includes a definition, connections to European history within the timeframe, and multiple examples aligned with AP European History themes, such as industrialization, nationalism, imperialism, and ideological shifts. Connections between terms, events, and people are explicitly noted where applicable.

Terms

Industrial: Relating to the large-scale production of goods using machinery and factories. Connected to the Second Industrial Revolution, it transformed agrarian economies and spurred urbanization. Examples: Britain’s textile factories (Manchester, 1830s); Germany’s Ruhr Valley steel production (1870s).

Agrarian Economy: Economic system based on agriculture and land cultivation, dominant before industrialization. Superseded by industrial economies, it persisted in rural areas like Russia. Examples: Russian serf-based agriculture (pre-1861 emancipation); Britain’s enclosure movement remnants (early 1800s).

German Empire: Unified German state established in 1871 under Bismarck, symbolizing nationalism and industrial power. Strengthened by the unification of Germany and challenged the balance of power. Examples: Proclamation at Versailles (1871); Wilhelm II’s naval expansion (1890s).

Continental States: European nations on the mainland, often contrasted with Britain’s island status. Involved in the Congress System and imperial antagonism. Examples: France under Napoleon III; Austria-Hungary as a dual monarchy.

Protective Tariffs: Taxes on imports to shield domestic industries, tied to national economies. Promoted by Bismarck in Germany to bolster industrial growth. Examples: German tariffs of 1879; France’s Méline Tariff (1892).

Colonial Conquests: European expansion into Africa and Asia, driven by imperialism and national rivalries. Fueled by industrial demand for raw materials and markets. Examples: Berlin Conference (1884–1885); Britain’s conquest of India (1858).

Patents: Legal protections for inventions, encouraging mechanization and private initiative. Key to the Second Industrial Revolution’s innovations. Examples: Bessemer steel process patent (1856); Edison’s European patents (1880s).

Human Capital: Skills and labor of individuals, vital for industrial economies. Enhanced by public education and urbanization. Examples: British factory workers’ skills (1840s); German technical training schools (1870s).

Private Initiative: Individual or business-driven efforts, central to laissez-faire and industrial growth. Contrasted with government sponsorship. Examples: Krupp steelworks in Germany (1860s); British railway entrepreneurs (1830s).

Parliamentary: Relating to government systems with elected legislatures, tied to liberalism and popular sovereignty. Evolved from 1848 revolutions. Examples: British Parliament’s Reform Acts (1832, 1867); German Reichstag under Bismarck.

Government Sponsorship: State support for economic or social projects, often opposing laissez-faire. Seen in Bismarck’s social welfare policies. Examples: French railway nationalization (1870s); German state-backed industries (1880s).

Mechanization: Use of machines to replace manual labor, core to the factory system. Accelerated the Second Industrial Revolution. Examples: Spinning jenny in Britain (1760s, expanded 1800s); German automated steel production (1870s).

Factory System: Organized production in centralized workplaces, driving industrial economies. Created wage-laborers and social dislocations. Examples: Manchester cotton mills (1830s); Lille textile factories in France (1850s).

National Economies: Economic systems defined by state boundaries, strengthened by tariffs and industrial growth. Linked to nationalism. Examples: Germany’s Zollverein (1834); Britain’s industrial dominance (1850s).

Global Economic Network: Interconnected trade and finance system, expanded by imperialism and manufactured goods. Facilitated by the Commercial Revolution’s legacy. Examples: British export of textiles (1870s); Suez Canal opening (1869).

Volatile Business Cycles: Economic fluctuations of booms and busts, tied to industrial capitalism. Affected socioeconomic classes. Examples: Panic of 1873; British economic slump (1880s).

Monopolies: Single entities dominating markets, emerging from industrial consolidation. Opposed by socialism. Examples: Standard Oil’s European influence (1880s); German cartels (1890s).

Tariffs: Taxes on trade, including protective tariffs, to regulate national economies. Debated by liberals and conservatives. Examples: British Corn Laws repeal (1846); German tariffs (1879).

Socioeconomic Classes: Social groups defined by wealth and occupation, reshaped by industrialization. Included bourgeoisie and proletariat. Examples: British middle class growth (1850s); French working-class unrest (1871 Paris Commune).

Social Divisions: Tensions between classes, exacerbated by industrial urbanization. Addressed by social welfare. Examples: German class conflicts (1890s); British Chartist movement (1840s).

Benevolent: Charitable or well-meaning actions, often by the bourgeoisie or government. Seen in philanthropic efforts. Examples: British Poor Law reforms (1834); German social insurance (1880s).

Social Dislocations: Disruptions caused by industrial changes, like urbanization and factory work. Prompted trade unions. Examples: Rural migration to London (1850s); French peasant upheaval (1840s).

Birth Control: Methods to limit family size, tied to smaller families and gender roles. Emerged with urban consumer culture. Examples: Malthusian League in Britain (1877); French family planning debates (1900s).

Protective Legislation: Laws safeguarding workers, reflecting social welfare trends. Supported by trade unions. Examples: British Factory Acts (1833, 1847); German labor laws (1880s).

Smaller Families: Trend toward reduced family size, linked to birth control and wage-laborer lifestyles. Altered gender roles. Examples: British urban families (1880s); French demographic shift (1900s).

Gender Roles: Societal expectations of men and women, challenged by feminists and suffragists. Shifted with industrialization. Examples: British women in factories (1850s); French suffrage demands (1900s).

Wage-Laborers: Workers paid for labor, central to the factory system. Formed the proletariat and joined trade unions. Examples: Manchester mill workers (1830s); German coal miners (1870s).

Urbanization: Growth of cities due to industrial and factory system expansion. Created social divisions and sanitary issues. Examples: London’s population boom (1851); Paris redesign under Napoleon III (1850s).

Separation of the Workplace: Division between home and work, a result of the factory system. Impacted gender roles. Examples: British textile mills (1840s); French urban workshops (1860s).

Trade Unions: Worker organizations advocating for rights, tied to socialism and protective legislation. Grew with industrialization. Examples: British Trades Union Congress (1868); German unions under Bismarck (1870s).

Social Welfare: Government or private aid to improve living conditions, linked to benevolent policies. Championed by Bismarck. Examples: German health insurance (1883); British workhouses (1834).

Leisure Activities: Pastimes enabled by industrial wealth and shorter work hours. Reflected consumerism. Examples: British music halls (1880s); French café culture (1900s).

Sanitary Standards: Improvements in hygiene and public health, addressing urban issues. Tied to life expectancy gains. Examples: British Public Health Act (1848); Paris sewer system (1850s).

Life Expectancy: Average lifespan, increased by sanitary standards and public health. Varied by socioeconomic class. Examples: British rise post-1850; German gains under Bismarck (1880s).

Self-Conscience Classes: Groups aware of their social identity, tied to class identity and socialism. Fueled revolutionaries. Examples: French proletariat in 1871; British Chartists (1840s).

Class Identity: Sense of belonging to a socioeconomic group, shaped by industrial society. Central to Marxism. Examples: German workers’ solidarity (1890s); British bourgeois pride (1850s).

Philanthropic: Charitable efforts, often by the wealthy, to address social dislocations. Linked to benevolent actions. Examples: Carnegie’s libraries in Britain (1900s); French orphanages (1880s).

Consumerism: Focus on purchasing goods, driven by mass marketing and industrial output. Reflected in leisure activities. Examples: British department stores (Harrods, 1880s); French sewing machine sales (1860s).

Mass Marketing: Advertising to broad audiences, tied to consumerism and manufactured goods. Boosted by industrial innovations. Examples: British soap ads (1890s); French bicycle campaigns (1900s).

Sewing Machine: Invention symbolizing mechanization and consumer culture. Impacted gender roles in homes. Examples: Singer machines in Britain (1860s); French domestic use (1880s).

Music Halls: Popular entertainment venues, part of leisure activities in urban areas. Showed bourgeois and proletarian culture. Examples: London’s Alhambra (1880s); Paris music halls (1890s).

Thermodynamics: Scientific study of energy, underpinning industrial technologies. Linked to the Second Industrial Revolution. Examples: Steam engine improvements (1850s); German engineering advances (1870s).

Conservatism: Ideology favoring tradition and stability, tied to Metternich and the Congress System. Opposed revolutionaries. Examples: Concert of Europe (1815–1848); British Tory policies (1830s).

Liberalism: Ideology advocating individual freedoms and parliamentary rule, rooted in laissez-faire. Shaped 1848 revolutions. Examples: British Reform Act (1832); French July Monarchy (1830–1848).

Socialism: Ideology promoting collective ownership, championed by Karl Marx and Marxists. Opposed monopolies. Examples: Paris Commune (1871); German Social Democratic Party (1875).

Nationalism: Pride in national identity, driving unification and imperial antagonism. Fueled by 1848 revolutions. Examples: Italian unification (1861); German Empire (1871).

Utopian: Idealistic visions of society, linked to early socialism and communal living. Contrasted with Marx’s scientific socialism. Examples: Robert Owen’s New Lanark (1810s); Fourier’s phalanxes (1830s).

Communal Living: Shared living arrangements, part of utopian socialism. Rejected by anarchists. Examples: Owen’s communities in Britain (1820s); French utopian experiments (1840s).

Syndicates: Worker-controlled groups, tied to anarchism and trade unions. Opposed capitalism. Examples: French syndicalism (1890s); Spanish worker movements (1900s).

Popular Sovereignty: Rule by the people, a liberal and revolutionary ideal. Seen in democratic mechanisms. Examples: French Second Republic (1848); British Chartist demands (1840s).

Ideology: System of beliefs shaping politics, including liberalism and socialism. Guided revolutionaries. Examples: Marx’s Communist Manifesto (1848); Bismarck’s realpolitik (1870s).

Human Nature: Philosophical view of innate traits, debated in psychology and ideology. Influenced Freudian psychology. Examples: Rousseau’s legacy in liberalism (1800s); Darwin’s evolutionary lens (1860s).

Anti-Semitism: Prejudice against Jews, tied to chauvinism and nationalism. Grew in imperial Europe. Examples: Dreyfus Affair in France (1894); Pogroms in Russia (1880s).

Chauvinism: Extreme nationalism, linked to imperialism and national rivalries. Fueled anti-Semitism. Examples: German Pan-German League (1890s); French revanchism (1870s).

Zionism: Movement for a Jewish homeland, reacting to anti-Semitism. Emerged late in the period. Examples: Theodor Herzl’s Congress (1897); Jewish migration to Palestine (1900s).

Laissez-Faire: Policy of minimal government intervention, core to liberalism. Challenged by socialism. Examples: British free trade (1846 Corn Laws repeal); French economic policies (1860s).

Infrastructure: Public works like roads and railways, supporting industrial growth. Funded by government sponsorship. Examples: British railway boom (1840s); French canals under Napoleon III (1850s).

Public Health: Efforts to improve population well-being, tied to sanitary standards. Increased life expectancy. Examples: British cholera reforms (1848); German sanitation laws (1880s).

Public Education: State-provided schooling, enhancing human capital and class identity. Promoted by liberals. Examples: British Education Act (1870); French Ferry Laws (1880s).

Napoleon’s Imperial Ambitions: Napoleon I’s legacy of conquest, influencing Napoleon III and imperialism. Shaped the balance of power. Examples: Napoleonic Wars’ impact (1815); Napoleon III’s Mexican venture (1860s).

Balance of Power: Diplomatic strategy to prevent dominance, maintained by the Congress System. Challenged by nationalism. Examples: Congress of Vienna (1815); Bismarck’s alliances (1870s).

National Self-Determination: Right of peoples to govern themselves, tied to nationalism. Sparked 1848 revolutions. Examples: Italian unification (1861); Hungarian autonomy demands (1867).

Revolutionary Forces: Groups seeking radical change, linked to socialism and nationalism. Active in 1848 and 1905. Examples: French radicals (1848); Russian revolutionaries (1905).

Bureaucracy: Administrative system managing states, expanded under industrial and imperial needs. Used by Bismarck. Examples: German civil service (1870s); French prefects under Napoleon III (1850s).

European Diplomacy: Negotiations among states, shaped by realpolitik and the alliance system. Maintained the balance of power. Examples: Congress of Vienna (1815); Triple Alliance (1882).

Realpolitik: Pragmatic politics, exemplified by Bismarck and Cavour. Focused on power over ideology. Examples: Bismarck’s unification wars (1860s); Cavour’s alliances (1850s).

Diplomatic Intrigue: Secretive maneuvers in foreign policy, tied to realpolitik. Fueled imperial antagonism. Examples: Bismarck’s Ems Dispatch (1870); Triple Entente negotiations (1907).

Democratic Mechanisms: Tools of popular rule, like elections, tied to liberalism. Expanded post-1848. Examples: British suffrage expansion (1867); French universal suffrage (1848).

Alliance System: Network of treaties ensuring stability or war, shaped by Bismarck. Led to World War I. Examples: Triple Alliance (1882); Triple Entente (1907).

Imperial Antagonism: Rivalries over colonies, linked to imperialism and national rivalries. Escalated tensions. Examples: Fashoda Incident (1898); Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911).

Congress System: Post-1815 framework for European stability, led by Metternich. Waned with nationalism. Examples: Congress of Vienna (1815); Treaty of Paris (1856).

Revolutionaries: Advocates of radical change, tied to socialism and nationalism. Active in 1848 and beyond. Examples: Mazzini in Italy (1840s); Bolsheviks in Russia (1905).

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary: 1867 compromise creating a joint state, reflecting national self-determination struggles. Weakened by nationalism. Examples: Ausgleich agreement (1867); Ethnic unrest (1900s).

Autocratic Leaders: Rulers with absolute power, resisting liberalism. Declined with revolutions. Examples: Tsar Nicholas I (1825–1855); Wilhelm II’s personal rule (1890s).

Garibaldi’s Military Campaigns: Italian nationalist efforts to unify Italy, tied to nationalism. Supported by Cavour. Examples: Expedition of the Thousand (1860); Rome attempt (1867).

Global Destiny: Belief in Europe’s world dominance, linked to imperialism and racial superiority. Drove colonial conquests. Examples: British “White Man’s Burden” (1890s); French mission civilisatrice (1880s).

Racial Superiority: Ideology justifying imperialism, influenced by Darwin’s theories. Tied to chauvinism. Examples: Scramble for Africa (1880s); German colonial rhetoric (1900s).

Antimalarial Drugs: Medicines like quinine enabling colonial expansion. Supported imperialism. Examples: British use in India (1850s); French in West Africa (1890s).

Gunboats: Armed ships enforcing imperial control, tied to manufactured goods. Symbolized Western power. Examples: British Opium Wars (1840s); German East Africa suppression (1880s).

Imperialism: Policy of extending state power over foreign lands, driven by nationalism and industrial needs. Shaped global destiny. Examples: Berlin Conference (1884–1885); British Raj (1858).

Exotic Influence: Cultural impact of colonies on Europe, seen in art like Impressionism. Reflected imperialism. Examples: Gauguin’s Tahiti paintings (1890s); British Indian textiles (1870s).

National Rivalries: Competitions among states, fueling imperialism and the alliance system. Led to World War I. Examples: Franco-German enmity (1871); Anglo-German naval race (1900s).

Manufactured Goods: Products of industrial factories, exported globally. Drove imperialism and consumerism. Examples: British textiles (1870s); German steel exports (1890s).

Western Values: Ideas like liberalism and rationalism, spread via imperialism. Contrasted with local cultures. Examples: British legal systems in India (1860s); French education in Algeria (1880s).

Darwin’s Evolutionary Theories: Natural selection ideas, influencing racial superiority and materialism. Shaped social thought. Examples: Origin of Species (1859); Social Darwinism in Germany (1880s).

Newtonian Universe: Mechanistic worldview, challenged by the Theory of Relativity. Basis of early industrial science. Examples: Steam engine designs (1830s); Physics education (1870s).

Theory of Relativity: Einstein’s 1905 theory, shifting scientific paradigms. Linked to quantum principles. Examples: Special relativity publication (1905); European scientific debates (1910s).

Quantum Principles: New physics of subatomic particles, emerging late in the period. Contrasted with Newtonian views. Examples: Planck’s quantum theory (1900); Bohr’s atomic model (1913).

Psychology: Study of the mind, advanced by Freudian psychology. Tied to human nature debates. Examples: Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams (1899); Jung’s theories (1910s).

Philosophy: Intellectual inquiry into existence, shifting toward materialism. Influenced ideology. Examples: Nietzsche’s works (1880s); Marx’s historical materialism (1860s).

Neurology: Study of the nervous system, linked to psychology. Grew with scientific advances. Examples: Brain research in Germany (1890s); Freud’s early work (1880s).

Skepticism: Doubt toward traditional beliefs, tied to rationalism and cultural relativism. Seen in philosophy. Examples: Nietzsche’s “God is dead” (1882); French anticlericalism (1900s).

Cultural Relativism: Idea that cultures are equal, challenging Western values. Emerged with exotic influence. Examples: Anthropological studies (1900s); Reactions to imperialism (1910s).

Neoclassical Forms: Revival of classical art styles, contrasting with modern art. Reflected conservatism. Examples: British architecture (1830s); French academic painting (1870s).

Rationalism: Emphasis on reason, core to liberalism and science. Opposed by Romanticism. Examples: Enlightenment legacy in education (1870s); French positivism (1860s).

Materialism: Focus on physical reality, tied to socialism and Darwin. Influenced philosophy. Examples: Marx’s economic theories (1867); German scientific materialism (1880s).

Freudian Psychology: Freud’s theories of the subconscious, shaping psychology. Explored conscious vs. subconscious. Examples: Psychoanalysis development (1890s); Vienna practice (1900s).

Conscious vs. Subconscious: Freud’s distinction between aware and hidden mind, tied to psychology. Influenced culture. Examples: Interpretation of Dreams (1899); Impact on Expressionism (1910s).

Abstract: Non-representational art, part of modern art movements. Reflected expressive trends. Examples: Kandinsky’s works (1910s); Cubism’s influence (1900s).

Expressive: Art emphasizing emotion, seen in Expressionism. Linked to Romanticism’s legacy. Examples: Munch’s The Scream (1893); German Expressionist paintings (1910s).

Events

Crystal Palace Exhibition: 1851 showcase of industrial achievements in London. Highlighted manufactured goods and consumerism. Examples: British machinery displays; Global attendance (1851).

Second Industrial Revolution: Late 19th-century industrial boom with steel, electricity, and chemicals. Drove mechanization and imperialism. Examples: Bessemer process (1856); German electrification (1880s).

Romanticism: Early 19th-century cultural movement valuing emotion, influencing nationalism. Waned with rationalism. Examples: Shelley’s poetry (1820s); German Romantic art (1830s).

Crimean War: 1853–1856 conflict over Ottoman decline, involving Russia, Britain, and France. Disrupted the Concert of Europe. Examples: Battle of Balaclava (1854); Treaty of Paris (1856).

Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Gradual weakening, exploited by imperial powers. Fueled national rivalries. Examples: Greek independence (1820s); Balkan unrest (1870s).

1905 Russian Revolution: Uprising against autocratic rule, tied to revolutionaries and socialism. Precursor to 1917. Examples: Bloody Sunday (1905); October Manifesto (1905).

Assassination of Franz Ferdinand: 1914 killing of Austria-Hungary’s heir, sparking World War I. Linked to nationalism. Examples: Sarajevo shooting (June 1914); July Crisis (1914).

Great War: Synonym for World War I (1914–1918), result of the alliance system and imperial antagonism. Ended the period. Examples: Trench warfare (1916); Treaty of Versailles (1919).

Concert of Europe: Post-1815 system under Metternich to maintain stability. Weakened by 1848 revolutions. Examples: Congress of Vienna (1815); Response to 1830 uprisings.

Nationalist Revolutions: Uprisings for national identity, tied to nationalism. Peaked in 1848. Examples: Italian revolts (1848); Hungarian rebellion (1848).

1848 Revolutions: Europe-wide revolts for liberalism and nationalism. Shaped democratic mechanisms. Examples: French Second Republic (1848); German Frankfurt Assembly (1848).

Unification of Italy: 1859–1870 process led by Cavour and Garibaldi, driven by nationalism. Opposed by Austria. Examples: Battle of Solferino (1859); Rome annexed (1870).

World War I: 1914–1918 global conflict, sparked by national rivalries and the alliance system. Ended empires. Examples: Battle of the Somme (1916); Armistice (1918).

Berlin Conference: 1884–1885 meeting to regulate African colonization, tied to imperialism. Fueled colonial conquests. Examples: Congo granted to Belgium; Scramble for Africa intensified.

Imperial Expansion: Growth of European empires, driven by industrial needs and racial superiority. Shaped global destiny. Examples: British Boer War (1899–1902); French Indochina (1880s).

Impressionism: Late 19th-century art movement focusing on light and everyday life. Influenced by exotic influence. Examples: Monet’s Water Lilies (1890s); Paris exhibitions (1870s).

Expressionism: Early 20th-century art emphasizing emotion, tied to expressive forms. Reacted to industrial society. Examples: Munch’s The Scream (1893); German art (1910s).

Cubism: 1900s art style fragmenting forms, part of modern art. Reflected abstract trends. Examples: Picasso’s Les Demoiselles (1907); Braque’s works (1910s).

Modern Art: Innovative art breaking tradition, including Impressionism and Cubism. Showed cultural shifts. Examples: Paris salons (1900s); German Expressionism (1910s).

Post Impressionism: Late 19th-century art extending Impressionism, tied to expressive styles. Preceded modern art. Examples: Van Gogh’s Starry Night (1889); Cézanne’s works (1890s).

People

Engineers: Innovators designing industrial technologies, tied to mechanization. Drove the Second Industrial Revolution. Examples: Brunel’s railways in Britain (1840s); Eiffel’s tower (1889).

Capitalists: Investors and industrialists, part of the bourgeoisie. Supported private initiative. Examples: Krupp in Germany (1870s); Rothschild bankers (1850s).

Proletariat: Working class in factories, central to socialism and trade unions. Opposed bourgeoisie. Examples: British mill workers (1840s); French Commune fighters (1871).

Bourgeoisie: Middle class of merchants and professionals, tied to industrial wealth. Championed liberalism. Examples: British factory owners (1850s); French urban elites (1870s).

Unions: Organized workers, synonymous with trade unions, advocating for rights. Linked to socialism. Examples: British TUC founders (1868); German unionists (1890s).

Feminists: Advocates for women’s rights, challenging gender roles. Overlapped with suffragists. Examples: British Pankhursts (1900s); French Hubertine Auclert (1880s).

Suffragists: Campaigners for women’s voting rights, tied to democratic mechanisms. Part of feminist movements. Examples: British suffragette protests (1910s); French suffrage rallies (1900s).

Traditional Elites: Landed aristocracy, resisting liberalism and industrial change. Waned in power. Examples: Russian nobles pre-1861; Austrian Hapsburgs (1870s).

Radicals: Advocates for extreme change, linked to revolutionaries and socialism. Opposed conservatives. Examples: French Blanquists (1840s); Russian Narodniks (1870s).

Republicans: Supporters of representative government, tied to liberalism. Active in 1848. Examples: French Second Republic leaders (1848); Italian Mazzini (1850s).

Marxists: Followers of Karl Marx, promoting socialism and class struggle. Influenced revolutionaries. Examples: German SPD members (1875); Russian Bolsheviks (1900s).

Anarchists: Advocates of stateless society, tied to syndicates. Opposed Marxists. Examples: Bakunin in Russia (1870s); Spanish anarchists (1900s).

Klemens Von Metternich: Austrian statesman leading the Congress System, symbol of conservatism. Opposed nationalism. Examples: Congress of Vienna (1815); 1848 suppression.

Napoleon III: French emperor (1852–1870), blending autocracy and liberalism. Pursued imperial ambitions. Examples: Second Empire reforms (1850s); Franco-Prussian War (1870).

Cavour in Italy: Piedmontese statesman driving Italian unification, using realpolitik. Allied with Garibaldi. Examples: Treaty of Plombières (1858); Unification (1861).

Bismarck in Germany: Prussian chancellor unifying Germany, master of realpolitik. Shaped the German Empire. Examples: Danish War (1864); Franco-Prussian War (1870).

German Emperor Wilhelm II: Ruler (1888–1918) of the German Empire, tied to chauvinism. Weakened Bismarck’s system. Examples: Naval race with Britain (1900s); World War I entry (1914).

Chancellor Bismarck: Same as Bismarck in Germany, architect of the alliance system. Balanced conservatism and social welfare. Examples: Triple Alliance (1882); Social insurance laws (1880s).

Triple Entente: Alliance of France, Russia, and Britain, countering the Triple Alliance. Led to World War I. Examples: Entente Cordiale (1904); Russian alignment (1907).

Triple Alliance: Pact of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, crafted by Bismarck. Fueled imperial antagonism. Examples: Formation (1882); Italian defection (1915).

Karl Marx: Philosopher of socialism, authoring the Communist Manifesto. Inspired Marxists. Examples: Das Kapital (1867); Paris Commune influence (1871).

Charles Darwin: Biologist with evolutionary theories, impacting materialism. Influenced racial superiority ideas. Examples: Origin of Species (1859); Social Darwinism (1880s).

Sigmund Freud: Founder of Freudian psychology, exploring the subconscious. Shaped modern thought. Examples: Interpretation of Dreams (1899); Psychoanalysis spread (1900s).

This covers the 1815–1914 period comprehensively, connecting terms like imperialism and nationalism to events like the Berlin Conference and people like Bismarck, while grounding examples in AP European History contexts. Let me know if you need further adjustments!