2 Breadth Two

Booklet 2: Britain: Losing and Gaining an Empire 1763-1914

The Changing Nature of the Royal Navy

Key Questions:

• How did the role of the Royal Navy evolve in the years 1763-1914?

• What were the reasons for the acquisition of key naval bases and how did these change during this period?

Overview of the Royal Navy (1588-1850)

Age of Sail:

• The Royal Navy dominated maritime warfare by utilizing sailing ships from the late 16th century until the mid-19th century, establishing itself as a symbol of British maritime power on a global scale.

• By 1763, it had achieved supremacy over major European maritime powers, including France, Spain, and the Netherlands, marking its peak influence following the Seven Years' War.

• The Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 was a decisive encounter wherein Admiral Horatio Nelson secured unchallengeable dominance for the Royal Navy, effectively neutralizing the threat posed by the combined Franco-Spanish fleet.

  • This battle involved 27 British ships against 33 Franco-Spanish vessels, leading to the defeat of the enemy fleet with only the loss of one British ship.

• British merchant shipping under Royal Naval protection represented over 60% of global maritime trade during this period, ensuring British trade routes remained protected against rival powers, which allowed Britain to expand both its colonial territories and global trade.

• The Royal Navy not only maintained superiority into the early 20th century but also evolved in response to the changing technological landscape and warfare strategies, embodying the adage that "the sea power of a nation is an essential aspect of its global standing."

Technological Change:

• The period between 1763 and 1914 witnessed rapid advancements in naval technology that substantially transformed naval warfare tactics and the operational capabilities of the Royal Navy.

• Established navigational skills and traditional shipbuilding techniques developed during the Tudor era remained significant but were complemented by advancements such as steam power and ironclad ships. For example, the HMS Warrior, launched in 1860, was England's first iron-hulled warship, capable of sailing at a speed of 14 knots.

• The transition from wind-powered ships to steam vessels marked a monumental shift in naval operations, allowing for greater speed, maneuverability (increasing operational ranges from around 1,000-1,500 miles to up to 3,000 miles), and predictability in naval engagements.

Evolution of the Royal Navy's Role (1763-1914)

Decline of European Rivals:

• Following the decisive victories in the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), the Royal Navy was free to expand its influence. With over 800 ships at its peak in 1815, it provided increased coverage and protection across vast maritime reaches.

• The decline of formidable rivals like Spain and France, compounded by political turmoil (such as the Spanish War of Independence), enabled the Royal Navy to decentralize its focus from direct confrontations, instead expanding its global strategic objectives.

• This shift allowed the UK to assert its interests in distant waters with impunity, fostering a phase of aggressive imperial expansion, evident in the acquisition of territories like India and territories in Africa and the Pacific during the Scramble for Africa.

New Ship Types and Tactics Matter:

Tactics:

• The Royal Navy underwent a major tactical evolution, abandoning traditional close-quarter combat methods and boarding in favor of powerful broadside attacks, which showcased its capacity for effective firepower deployment.

• Significant naval engagements, including Lagos (1759), Quiberon Bay (1759), and Trafalgar (1805), illustrated the effectiveness of these new strategies, propelling a shift towards comprehensive line-of-battle tactics.

• At Trafalgar, British ships fired 4,000 cannon rounds, demonstrating the tactical effectiveness of the broadside approach.

Ship Constructs:

• Ships of the line became vital assets characterized by their formidable cannonry—some ships carried over 100 cannons (like HMS Victory’s 104 cannons)—and were designed for decisive fleet battles.

• The categorization of naval vessels into first to fourth-rate ships based on the number of guns, such as the First rate with up to 100 guns, played a critical role in determining their operational roles within the navy, from flagships to support vessels.

Broadside Tactics:

• Broadsides became the cornerstone of naval engagement strategy, allowing for simultaneous cannon fire from multiple ships arranged in linear formations, maximizing offensive capability while reducing the risk of friendly fire incidents. The effective firing capabilities of these tactics were often reported as delivering devastating salvos that could decimate enemy formations.

Ship Types and Their Roles

Main Warships:

• Ships of the Line: These ships exemplified Royal Navy strength; HMS Victory, for instance, carried a formidable 104 guns and served as a flagship during critical battles, such as Trafalgar.

• Frigates: More agile, these ships were deployed for reconnaissance and patrolling. For instance, HMS Speedy successfully captured over 40 enemy vessels while also contending with threats from both French and American frigates, demonstrating the versatile roles of naval ships.

Changing Naval Objectives and Strategies (Post-Napoleonic War)

After 1815:

• Post-Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy shifted its focus towards protecting trade routes, with merchant shipping growing from 50% of British commerce in 1815 to over 75% in the following decades.

• The Royal Navy took up a significant role in the suppression of piracy after 1815, with estimates indicating they captured over 1,500 pirates between 1820 and 1850.

• Additionally, the army of the Royal Navy was reduced from 150,000 sailors in peacetime to around 45,000, transitioning away from the impressment practices that had been commonplace during wartime.

Technology and the Royal Navy

Transition to Steam Power:

• The introduction of steam power from the 1830s onward began to transform naval warfare significantly—by 1850, nearly half of the Royal Navy's ships were steam-powered.

• Innovations such as the screw propeller (which improved vessel speeds to 14 knots) allowed for improved naval logistics and engagement outcomes—incidentally leading to the construction of ships that could maintain high speeds even in adverse weather conditions.

Artillery Advances:

• The introduction of explosive shells revolutionized naval artillery starting in the 1820s, forcing ships like the HMS Devastation (launched in 1871) to operate with iron hulls designed to withstand contemporary artillery impacts. The increase in shell size and the transition to rifled barrels significantly improved ranges and accuracy, with maximum ranges extending up to 5,000 yards.

Acquisition of Key Strategic Bases (1763-1914)

Global Strategy Shifts:

• The rationale for acquiring naval bases evolved drastically from merely supporting trade to strategic imperatives aimed at countering rival naval powers.

Key Naval Bases Acquired

• Gibraltar: Critical for controlling the straits; over 1200 British naval ships passed through these waters annually.

• Ceylon: Positioned on the crucial shipping lanes of the Indian Ocean, it saw an annual cargo of spices worth millions of pounds to the British economy.

• Cape Town: Served more than 200 vessels monthly as a coaling station by the late 19th century, ensuring increased reach of Royal Navy deployments.

• Malta: Post-1869, with the Suez Canal, the traffic through Malta increased, with over 7,000 vessels visiting yearly in the 1880s alone, which underscored the strategic necessity of having a presence here.

• Falklands (1833): The discovery of lucrative resources helped secure its status as a British territory against US and growing South American interests.

• Aden (1839): This base catered to over 200 ships annually, utilized as a naval bunker and a coaling station critical for operations within the Arabian Sea and beyond.

Royal Navy and Slave Trade Suppression

Transition to Anti-Slavery Maneuvers:

• The Royal Navy's involvement in anti-slavery activities peaked by the 1850s with over 100 ships dedicated to patrolling for slave ships, resulting in the capture of around 1,600 slave ships by 1865.

Piracy Suppression:

• The Royal Navy actively suppressed piracy, especially in the Caribbean and Mediterranean regions, witnessing a decline in piracy incidents from 1,000 in 1820 to about 200 in 1850 due to heightened naval patrols.

Evolution of Naval Policy and Direction (1890-1914)

Shift in British Naval Doctrine:

• The introduction of the Two-Power Standard policy emerged in response to a perceived threat from rival navies, designed to ensure the Royal Navy outclassed the next two largest navies combined—this policy defined naval spending and planning within the British defense community.

• By 1914, the Royal Navy boasted a fleet of over 500 ships, ensuring its supremacy in global waters against the rising German imperial fleet and others.

Conclusion

• The Royal Navy's evolution from reliance on age-old naval designs and traditional warfare strategies to adopting groundbreaking technological advancements and innovative tactics underscored its adaptability and importance in addressing emerging global threats. This transformation ensured that the Royal Navy retained a central role in the geopolitical landscape of the 19th and early 20th centuries while adapting to the changing conditions of maritime power and imperial ambitions.