“54-40 or Fight”
A slogan of expansionists supporting U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory, demanding the boundary with Britain be set at latitude 54°40′, though it was peacefully resolved at the 49th Parallel.

“No Tax Without Representation”
Colonial protest against British taxation, emphasizing the lack of colonial representation in Parliament and sparking revolutionary sentiments.

1st Continental Congress
A 1774 meeting of colonial delegates in response to the Coercive Acts, aiming to organize resistance and assert colonial rights.

2nd Continental Congress
The governing body during the Revolutionary War that drafted the Declaration of Independence and managed the war effort.

3/5th Compromise
A constitutional agreement counting enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes, highlighting sectional tensions.

49th Parallel
The final boundary between the U.S. and British Canada, established in 1846 as part of the Oregon Treaty, reflecting peaceful diplomacy.

Abraham Lincoln
16th U.S. president who led the Union during the Civil War, issued the Emancipation Proclamation, and prioritized national unity.

Admiralty Courts
British courts enforcing trade laws, often bypassing colonial juries, which fueled anger over perceived violations of rights.

Alexander Hamilton
A Founding Father who advocated for a strong central government, co-authored the Federalist Papers, and founded the National Bank.

Alien & Sedition Act
Laws targeting immigrants and restricting free speech against the government, sparking debates about liberty and federal power.

Andrew Jackson
7th U.S. president, champion of the "common man," known for the Indian Removal Act and opposition to the National Bank.

Annapolis Convention
A 1786 meeting to address trade issues, which led to the call for the Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation.

Appomattox
The site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in 1865, marking the effective end of the Civil War.

Articles of Confederation
The first U.S. constitution, which created a weak central government and was replaced by the current Constitution in 1789.

Baron Von Steuben
A Prussian officer who trained the Continental Army at Valley Forge, significantly improving its discipline and effectiveness.

Battle of Bunker Hill
An early Revolutionary War battle showing that colonial forces could stand up to the British, despite ultimately losing.

Battle of New Orleans
A major U.S. victory in the War of 1812, led by Andrew Jackson, boosting American nationalism and his political career.

Benedict Arnold
A Revolutionary War hero turned traitor, who plotted to surrender West Point to the British, symbolizing betrayal.

Benjamin Franklin
A Founding Father, diplomat, and inventor who helped secure French support during the Revolutionary War.

Bill of Rights
The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing individual liberties and addressing Anti-Federalist concerns.

Boston Massacre
A 1770 incident in which British soldiers killed five colonists, inflaming anti-British sentiment.

Boston Tea Party
A 1773 protest against British taxes on tea, where colonists dumped tea into Boston Harbor, escalating tensions.

Bull Run/Manassas
The first major Civil War battle, demonstrating that the conflict would be long and costly.

California Gold Rush
A massive migration to California in 1849 after gold was discovered, spurring westward expansion and statehood.

Coercive Acts
British laws punishing Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, known in the colonies as the "Intolerable Acts."

Committees of Correspondence
Colonial networks that coordinated resistance to British policies and spread revolutionary ideas.

Common Sense
A pamphlet by Thomas Paine arguing for independence from Britain, widely influential in mobilizing public opinion.

Confederate States
The Southern states that seceded from the Union, forming their own government during the Civil War.

Constitutional Convention
The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia that drafted the U.S. Constitution, creating a stronger central government.

Corrupt Bargain
The alleged deal between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay to secure Adams' presidency in 1824, angering Andrew Jackson.

Declaration of Independence
The 1776 document proclaiming colonial independence from Britain, drafted by Thomas Jefferson.

Declaratory Act
A 1766 law asserting British authority over the colonies, passed after repealing the Stamp Act.

Democratic-Republican Party
Founded by Jefferson and Madison, advocating states’ rights and opposing centralized power.

Dolley Madison
First Lady who famously saved George Washington’s portrait during the British burning of the White House in 1814.

Elastic Clause
A provision in the Constitution allowing Congress to pass laws deemed "necessary and proper," enabling flexibility in governance.

Electoral College
The system for electing the president, balancing power between populous and less populous states.

English Liberties
The rights of English subjects, often cited by colonists to justify their resistance to British policies.

Federalist Papers
Essays advocating for the Constitution’s ratification, authored by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay.

Florida
Acquired from Spain in 1819 through the Adams-Onís Treaty, expanding U.S. territory.

Fort Sumter
The site of the first Civil War battle, where Confederate forces fired on a Union fort in Charleston, South Carolina.

French & Indian War
A conflict between Britain and France (1754–1763) over North American territory, setting the stage for colonial unrest.

Fugitive Slave Law
Part of the Compromise of 1850, requiring the return of escaped enslaved people, inflaming sectional tensions.

Gaspee Affair
A 1772 event where colonists burned a British customs ship, symbolizing growing defiance against Britain.

General Cornwallis
A British general who surrendered at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the Revolutionary War.

George III
The British king during the American Revolution, criticized for his policies toward the colonies.

George Washington
The first U.S. president and commander of the Continental Army, celebrated for his leadership and integrity.

Great Compromise
A constitutional agreement creating a bicameral legislature, balancing representation for large and small states.

Henry Clay
A politician known as the "Great Compromiser," instrumental in the Missouri Compromise and Compromise of 1850.

Hessians
German mercenaries hired by Britain during the Revolutionary War, criticized for their harsh tactics.

James K. Polk
11th U.S. president, known for his expansionist policies, including the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Treaty.

James Madison
The "Father of the Constitution" and 4th U.S. president, co-author of the Federalist Papers.

James Otis
A colonial lawyer who argued against the Writs of Assistance, famously declaring, "Taxation without representation is tyranny."

John Adams
A Founding Father and 2nd U.S. president, key in securing independence and avoiding war with France.

John C. Calhoun
A Southern leader who championed states’ rights and nullification, deepening sectional divisions.

John Hancock
President of the Continental Congress, known for his bold signature on the Declaration of Independence.

John Jay
A diplomat and first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, co-author of the Federalist Papers.

John Paul Jones
A Revolutionary War naval hero known for his famous declaration, "I have not yet begun to fight!"

Louisiana Purchase
The 1803 acquisition of French territory doubling U.S. size, promoted by Jefferson.
March to the Sea
A destructive campaign led by Union General William T. Sherman in 1864, devastating Southern infrastructure and weakening Confederate morale.

Mercantilism
An economic system where colonies existed to benefit the mother country, driving British policies that angered colonists.

Mexican Cession
The land ceded to the U.S. after the Mexican-American War in 1848, including present-day California and the Southwest.

Mexican War
A conflict (1846–1848) sparked by U.S. annexation of Texas, ending with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and vast territorial gains.

Minutemen
Colonial militia prepared to fight at a moment's notice, famously active during the battles of Lexington and Concord.

Monroe Doctrine
A U.S. policy declaring opposition to European colonization in the Americas, asserting U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.

National Bank
Proposed by Alexander Hamilton to stabilize the economy, it became a symbol of federal authority and economic policy debates.

Navigation Acts
British trade laws regulating colonial commerce, fueling resentment by limiting colonial economic freedom.

Neutrality Act
A 1794 law aiming to keep the U.S. out of foreign conflicts, reflecting George Washington’s policy of isolationism.

New Jersey Plan
A proposal for equal representation for all states in Congress, supporting smaller states during the Constitutional Convention.

Nonimportation Agreements
Colonial boycotts of British goods in protest of taxation without representation, demonstrating collective resistance.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Legislation establishing procedures for Northwest Territory statehood and banning slavery in the region.

Nullification
The idea that states could void federal laws deemed unconstitutional, most famously invoked by South Carolina in the 1830s.

Olive Branch Petition
A final attempt by colonists to avoid war with Britain in 1775, rejected by King George III.

Oregon
A region jointly occupied by the U.S. and Britain until the Oregon Treaty of 1846 established the 49th Parallel as the boundary.

Parliament
The British legislature that imposed taxes and laws on the colonies, leading to tensions over governance.

Patrick Henry
A fiery orator known for his declaration, "Give me liberty, or give me death!" during the Revolutionary era.

Petticoat Affair
A scandal during Andrew Jackson’s presidency over the social exclusion of Peggy Eaton, revealing divisions in Jackson’s cabinet.

Proclamation of 1763
A British law forbidding colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, angering settlers eager for expansion.

Quartering Act
A law requiring colonists to house and supply British troops, seen as a violation of personal freedoms.

Republican Party
Founded in the 1850s to oppose the expansion of slavery, becoming the party of Abraham Lincoln.

Robert E. Lee
The leading general of the Confederate Army during the Civil War, known for his tactical skill and eventual surrender at Appomattox.

Salutary Neglect
A British policy of loose enforcement of colonial trade laws, which ended after the French and Indian War, angering colonists.

Samuel Adams
A Revolutionary leader and founder of the Sons of Liberty, instrumental in organizing resistance to British policies.

Sectionalism
Loyalty to one’s region over the nation, driving tensions between the North and South over slavery and economic policies.

Slavery
A system of forced labor central to Southern economies, fueling moral debates and sectional conflict leading to the Civil War.

Sons of Liberty
A secret organization opposing British policies, known for protests like the Boston Tea Party.

Spoils System
A practice where political supporters were rewarded with government jobs, popularized by Andrew Jackson.

Stamp Act Congress
A 1765 meeting of colonial delegates to protest the Stamp Act, marking the first united colonial action against Britain.

Star-Spangled Banner
A poem written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812, later set to music and adopted as the U.S. national anthem.

Supremacy Clause
A section of the Constitution declaring federal law superior to state law, ensuring national unity.

Thomas Jefferson
A Founding Father, principal author of the Declaration of Independence, and the 3rd U.S. president.

Thomas Paine
Author of Common Sense and The Crisis, his writings inspired support for American independence.

Trail of Tears
The forced removal of Cherokee and other tribes to lands west of the Mississippi, resulting in thousands of deaths.

Treaty of Ghent
The 1814 treaty ending the War of 1812, restoring prewar borders without resolving many underlying issues.

Treaty of Paris
The 1783 agreement ending the Revolutionary War, recognizing U.S. independence and granting significant territory.

Ulysses S. Grant
Union general and 18th U.S. president, key to victory in the Civil War and Reconstruction efforts.

Virginia Plan
A proposal for representation based on population, favoring larger states during the Constitutional Convention.

War of 1812
A conflict with Britain over trade and territory, boosting U.S. nationalism despite no clear victor.

Whiskey Rebellion
A 1794 protest against a federal tax on whiskey, suppressed by Washington, demonstrating federal authority.

Writs of Assistance
Search warrants allowing British officials to enforce trade laws, sparking colonial outrage over privacy violations.

XYZ Affair
A diplomatic incident in which French agents demanded bribes, leading to anti-French sentiment and the Quasi-War.