Research and Thesis Flashcards

Introduction to Research

Definition of Research

• Research is a method of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method of inquiry to enrich the system of objective knowledge in natural and social sciences (Almeida, Gaerlan & Manly, 2016).
• Research involves multiple, systematic strategies to generate knowledge about human behavior, experience, and environments. The researcher's thinking and actions are clearly specified, logical, understandable, confirmable, and useful (Depoy & Gitlin, 2005, as cited in Cotrell & McKenzey, 2011).
• Health research is a systematic investigation involving the analysis of collected information or data. It enhances health education knowledge or practice and answers questions about health-related theories, behaviors, or phenomena (Cotrell & McKenzey, 2011).
• Nursing research is a specialized field dedicated to developing and implementing evidence-based practice to improve patient outcomes (Institute of Medicine (US) Division of Health Care Services, 1983).
• Nursing research develops knowledge about health and health promotion across the lifespan. It addresses care for people with health problems and disabilities, and nursing actions to enhance individuals' ability to respond effectively to actual or potential health problems (Institute of Medicine (US) Division of Health Care Services, 1983).

Nursing Research vs. Research in Nursing

• Nursing Research: Research done on addressing the health concerns of clients and the application of research on their care.
• Research in Nursing: Studies on the particular concerns of nurses themselves.

Examples of Nursing Research:

1. An exploratory study of mothering for teens with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
2. Development of a nursing measurement instrument for quantifying diet change patterns among women in their 40’s.
3. Disengagement behaviors of adult children toward their elderly parents.

Examples of Research in Nursing:

1. Job satisfaction and acculturation of Filipino nurses in Australia.
2. Performance of nursing graduates from Manila and other regions in the licensure exams in 2009-2011.
3. Leadership and management styles of nurse leaders in selected Metro Manila hospitals.

Directions of Nursing Research

1. Promoting health, well-being, and competency for personal care among all age groups.
2. Preventing health problems throughout the lifespan that have the potential to reduce productivity and satisfaction.
3. Decreasing the negative impact of health problems on coping abilities, productivity, and life satisfaction of individuals and families.
4. Ensuring that the care needs of particularly vulnerable groups are met through appropriate strategies.
5. Designing and developing health care systems that are cost-effective in meeting the nursing needs of the population.

Goals of Nursing Research

1. Promote efficient and effective nursing care.
2. Promote worth and value of the nursing profession to society.
3. Identify, Implement and Evaluate health care modalities.
4. Utilize clinical nursing research as evidence-based data to provide quality care to clients.

Purpose of Nursing Research

• To generate knowledge and its application to nursing practice and prescribe accurately and professionally without untoward client response or reactions to nursing interventions (Polit and Beck, 2008).
• To produce the most desirable patient outcomes through scientific data (Boswell & Cannon, 2007).

Nursing Research Aims

1. Identification
2. Description
3. Exploration
4. Explanation
5. Prediction and Control

Reasons for Conducting Research in Nursing

1. Gathers data or information on nursing situations or conditions about which little knowledge is available.
2. Provides scientific knowledge base from which nursing theories emerge and develop.
3. Helps correct, clarify, validate, and expand perceptions.
4. Provides theoretical and scientific basis for nursing practice.
5. Defines parameters of nursing and identifies its boundaries.
6. Documents the social relevance and efficacy of nursing practice to people and health care providers.
7. Describes the characteristics of the nursing situation about which little is known.
8. Predicts probable outcomes of nursing decisions in relation to client care.
9. Provides knowledge for purposes of problem-solving and decision-making.
10. Develops and evaluates nursing theories and concepts and practice for clarity and validity of nursing actions.
11. Prevents undesirable client reactions.
12. Develops a considerable degree of confidence.

Characteristics of a Good Research

1. It is based on previous work and a thorough review of the literature.
2. It is based on theory.
3. It is apolitical, objective, and logical.
4. It is designed to answer a question or solve a problem.
5. It can be replicated and validated.
6. It can be generalized to other settings (quantitative).
7. It uses accurate observation and measurement.
8. It requires patient, unhurried activity.
9. It involves rigorous analysis of data.
10. Results are reported for others to utilize and critique.

Characteristics of Good Researchers

• Inquisitive
• Patient, unhurried, and deliberate
• Perseverant and determined
• Systematic and logical
• Doubtful and skeptical
• Independent, objective, impartial, and honest
• Seek order and understanding
• Courageous

Classification of Nursing Research

Approach

• Experimental: cause and effect relationship
• Non-Experimental: Describe & Analyze
• Quasi-Experimental: partial experiment
• Combined: mixed methods, triangulation

Time Frame

• Longitudinal Prospective: Future Data
• Cross-sectional: Present Data
• Retrospective: Past Data

Measurement and Data Analysis

• Quantitative: Frequency, magnitude of events
• Qualitative: perceptions & insights
• Combined: mixed methods

Research Environment

• Field Research: community research
• Laboratory Research: demonstration research
• Clinical Research: related learning experiences

Motive or Objective

• Basic Research: knowledge generation
• Applied Research: improve professional practice
• Historical: meaning of past events

Role of Nurses in Research

• As Principal Investigators
• As Member of a Research Team
• As Evaluator of Research Findings
• As Consumers of Research Findings
• As Client Advocates in a Research Study
• As Subjects of Research

Hallmarks and Qualities of Good Nurse Researchers

1. Honest and Credible
2. Accurate in Data Collection
3. Organized and Systematic
4. Logical
5. Self-Awareness
6. Imaginative and Curious
7. Persistent with Barriers
8. Establishes Good Relationships with Respondents and Other Researchers
9. Updated and Informed of Present Issues and Events

Building an Evidence-Based Nursing Practice

What is Evidence-Based Practice

• Integration of the best possible research evidence with clinical expertise and patient needs (Porter-O’Grady, 2006).
• Providing holistic, quality care based on the most up-to-date research and knowledge rather than traditional methods, advice from colleagues, or personal beliefs (American Nurses Association, 2023).

Examples of EBP in Nursing

1. Use of oxygen to help hypoxia and organ failure in patients with COPD.
2. Management of angina pectoris.
3. Protocols regarding alarm fatigue.
4. Recognition of a family member’s influence on a patient’s presentation of symptoms.
5. Noninvasive measurement of blood pressure in children.

5 Steps to Implement EBP in Nursing

1. Ask a clear question (using the PICOT format) about the patient's issue and determine an ultimate goal, such as improving a procedure to help their specific condition.
2. Acquire the best evidence by searching relevant clinical articles from legitimate sources.
3. Appraise the resources gathered to determine if the information is valid, of optimal quality compared to the evidence levels, and relevant for the patient.
4. Apply the evidence to clinical practice by making decisions based on your nursing expertise and the new information.
5. Assess outcomes to determine if the treatment was effective and should be considered for other patients.

Developing the Foreground Questions Using the PICOT Format

• P: Patient Population of Interest
• I: Intervention of Interest
• C: Comparison of Interest
• O: Outcome of Interest
• T: Time

P - Patient Population of Interest

• A description of the patient population and setting to retrieve the most relevant evidence.

I - Intervention of Interest

• This includes but is not limited to any treatment, patient perception, exposure, or diagnostic test. The more defined the intervention, the more focused the search for evidence will be.

C - Comparison of Interest

• The standard of care compared to a new treatment or procedure. The comparison can be a true control such as a placebo.

O - Outcome of Interest

• Specific identification of the outcome variable facilitates the search for evidence that has investigated the same outcome.

T - Time

• Specific time for the intervention to achieve the best outcome.

Examples of Searchable Questions for Research in EBP

Example #1: Labor and Delivery

• Preliminary Question: Is epidural anesthesia appropriate for all laboring patients?
• Justification of Question: This question identifies the population and time as all laboring patients and the intervention as the use of epidural anesthesia. It fails to document any comparison with other anesthesia methods or the outcome that the hospital is interested in achieving.
• PICOT Analysis:
  • Population: All laboring patients
  • Intervention: Use of Epidural Anesthesia
  • Comparison: Use of Narcotic Pain Management
  • Outcome: Reduction in Labor Complications
  • Time: Individuals in labor
• Revised Searchable Question: For all laboring patients, will the administration of epidural anesthesia be more effective in reducing labor complications than other forms of anesthesia administered during the labor process?

Example #2: Readmission Rates

• Preliminary Question: What follow-up activities can be used to affect 30-day readmission rates for patients being dismissed from the hospital with a diagnosis of CHF?
• Justification of Question: The limitations of this question include the heart failure to stipulate clearly the population and to supply the adequate particulars about the situation.
• PICOT Analysis:
  • Population: Patients being discharged from a hospital following treatment for CHF Symptoms
  • Intervention: Phone calls by registered nurses within 48H of discharge to check on transition to home care.
  • Comparison: Mailing a reminder to complete all follow-up care.
  • Outcome: Effective management of CHF Symptoms from home along with decreased number of readmissions for CHF Symptoms.
  • Time: Within 30 days from discharge
• Revised Searchable Question: During the 30 days following discharge from the acute care setting, will patients who had a diagnosis of CHF have effective management of their CHF symptoms following the use of a phone call to discuss home care by registered nurses within 36H of discharge compared to receiving a mailed reminder of complete follow-up care expectations?

Example #3: Pediatrics

• Preliminary Question: Which type of information must be included, and how should the parenting class be provided for the parents?
• Justification of Question: Although the population has been somewhat specified, additional clarification is needed. Another limitation within the preliminary question is the lack of clarification about the interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and time component of the PICOT.
• PICOT Analysis:
  • Population: Parents who have had children admitted to the hospital for recurring health problems.
  • Intervention: Online parenting classes addressing symptoms that need to be reported to the healthcare provider.
  • Comparison: Face-to-face parenting classes
  • Outcome: Reduction in the number of admissions for recurring health problems.
  • Time:
• Revised Searchable Question: Do online parenting classes compared to face-to-face classes improve the knowledge level for parents who have had children admitted to the hospital for recurring health problems and reduce the number of readmissions for the same disease process?

Example #4: Staffing

• Preliminary Question: Which type of nursing shift timing should be used to improve the staff retention on this unit?
• Justification of Question: The question does not adequately define the population or the intervention for addressing the concerns. It is voiced more as a global type of question.
• PICOT Analysis:
  • Population: Full-time nursing staff employees
  • Intervention: Use of 12-hour shifts with primary care model.
  • Comparison: Use of 8-hour shift with team nursing care model.
  • Outcome: Improved staff retention rate and improved patient satisfaction findings.
  • Time:
• Revised Searchable Question: For full-time nursing staff employees, will the use of 12-hour shifts with a primary care nursing model improve the staff retention rate and patient satisfaction findings when compared to 8-hour shifts using a team nursing approach?

Finding a Topic and Getting Started

Potential Sources

1. Literature Reviews
2. Thesis/Dissertation Defense Hearings
3. Professional meetings
4. Theories and models
5. Coursework
6. Work setting
7. Community contact
8. Grant/Foundation sources
9. Serendipity

Considerations in Choosing a Topic

• Interest and enthusiasm
• Time
• Cost
• Scope of the problem
• Contribution to the Profession
• Support and Expertise
• Access Issues
• Degree of Control
• Design Considerations
• Values and Comfort Level

UN Sustainable Development Goals

8 Goals of UN MDG’s

• Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
• Achieve universal primary education.
• Promote gender equality and empower women.
• Reduce child mortality.
• Improve maternal health.
• Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases.
• Ensure environmental sustainability.
• Global partnership for development.

National Unified Health Research Agenda 2023-2028

• Guide national health research activity.
• Generate research support.
• Promote the translation of research into practice.

Researchable Areas:

• Disease Management
• Halal in Health
• Health Security, Emergency, and Disaster Risk Management
• Health Technology and Innovation
• Health of Vulnerable Populations
• Health Promotions
• Health Systems Strengthening towards UHC
• Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health
• Mental Health
• Nutrition and Food Security
• Sexual and Reproductive Health

AUP Research Agenda

Literature Review

• A literature review is a written summary of articles, books, and other documents that describes the past and current state of knowledge about a topic.
• Helps to direct one’s thinking and moves one toward developing a specific research question to be answered.
• It is one of the most exciting and significant aspects of doing research, however, it is often a misconceived and undervalued activity.

Reasons Why It Is Considered Undervalued Activity

1. Students do not have a clear idea of why they are doing a literature review.
2. They do not know where to start the literature search and when to stop.
3. They do not have a clear strategy for collecting and organizing data.

Why do a literature review?

• To help justify the importance of the research problems
• The information from a qualitative researcher’s literature review will be utilized at the end of the study to compare and contrast findings and to place the new study in the context in the body of knowledge in that area or field.
• In quantitative research, the literature review is done at the very beginning of the study to justify the importance of the study, place the study in historical perspective, refine the research questions, and identify appropriate methodology and instrumentation.
• It helps ensure that one does not unintentionally repeat work that has already been done.
• It will help avoid mistakes that have already been made by identifying research designs or instrumentation that did not work well in the past.
• It helps to identify research procedures and instruments that have been successfully utilized in the past.

Components of Research Article

1. Title: Describes what the study is all about.
2. Abstract: A brief summary of the problem of interest to the researcher. It describes, in approximately 120-150 words, what took place in the research study and makes a brief statement about the outcome. It helps to determine relevance to the reader who is conducting a search of the literature.
3. Introduction/Literature Review: Gives the background of the research topic and explains why it is important, based on a selective review of relevant literature. It compares and contrasts other research articles while summarizing what is already known and not known about the topic.
4. Purpose of the Study/Hypothesis/Research Design: The purpose explains the aim of the study. It is the hypothesis or the research question that the author wants to support or answer.
5. Methodology/Procedures/Research Design: Describes in detail what actions the author took to carry out the study. The method describes the procedure for how the research was conducted and how the information was analyzed or which statistical testing was done. It also describes the population, including how it was selected; the setting where the research took place; the number of participants in the study; the type of study, and the tools or methods used to collect the data or simply attain the study information.
6. Major Findings/Results/Analysis/Discussion: This component describes the outcome of the study.
7. Summary/Conclusion/Ideas for Future Studies/Implication: Highlights major findings of the study and identifies gaps. It addresses any areas that need further research. Recommendations for policy or practice should be discussed.
8. Works Cited/References/Acknowledgments: The reference list should be organized in literary format (APA Format 7th Edition).

Search Engines vs. Databases

• Search Engine: A computer program that searches documents, especially on the World Wide Web (www), for a specified word or words and provides a list of documents in which they are found.
• Database: A large collection of data organized especially for rapid search and retrieval.

Tips when using Search Engines

1. Use Boolean operators (‘and’, ‘or’, and ‘not’).
2. Use quotation marks around any phrase to your subject search.
3. Add a plus sign (+) before search terms.

Databases Useful in Nursing Research

1. PubMed
2. Medline Plus
3. CINAHL
4. Nursing Reference Center (EBSCO)
5. Cochrane Library
6. PsyINFO
7. Google Scholar

Literature Search

1. Identify the descriptors to search for.
2. Determine how best to use the descriptors so as to obtain a listing of articles that most precisely represent the topic being searched.
3. Be acquainted with Boolean operators. Boolean operators are syntax terms used in the search line that help the computer to identify more precisely the articles of value to a specific search.
4. Use software to organize gathered literature.

Establishing the Research Gap

What is a Research Gap?

• A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by any of the existing studies or research within your field. Sometimes, a research gap exists when there is a concept or new idea that hasn't been studied at all.
• The gap, also considered the missing piece or pieces in the research literature, is the area that has not yet been explored or is under-explored. This could be a population or sample (size, type, location, etc.), research method, data collection and/or analysis, or other research variables or conditions.

Locating the Research Gaps

• Conducting an exhaustive literature review is your first step. As you search for journal articles, you will need to read critically across the breadth of the literature to identify these gaps. Your goal should be to find a ‘space’ or opening for contributing new research.

Types of Research Gaps

1. Evidence Gaps (Contradictory Evidence Gap): Results from studies allow for conclusions in their own right but are contradictory when examined from a more abstract point of view (Jacobs, 2011; Maller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
2. Knowledge Gap (Knowledge Void Gap): Desired research findings do not exist (Jacobs, 2011; Miller- Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
3. Practical-Knowledge Gap (Action-Knowledge Conflict Gap): Professional behavior or practices deviate from research findings or are not covered by research (Jacobs, 2011; Miller- Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
4. Methodological Gap: A variation of research methods is necessary to generate new insights or avoid distorted findings (Jacobs, 2011; Miller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
5. Empirical Gap (Evaluation Void Gap): Research findings or propositions need to be evaluated, or empirically verified (Jacobs, 2011; Miller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
6. Theoretical Gap (Theory Application Void Gap): Theory should be applied to certain research issues to generate new insights. There is a lack of theory thus a gap exists. (Jacobs, 2011; Miller-Bloch & Kranz, 2014; Miles, 2017).
7. Population Gap: Research regarding the population that is not adequately represented or under-researched in the evidence base or prior research (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, age) (Robinson, et al., 2011).

The Study Variables

Variables

• Condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories.
• A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed by the researcher and varies among individuals or organizations studied. Examples: alcohol consumption levels, gender, race, age, ticket characteristics.

Types of Variables

1. Independent Variable (IV):
   • Variables that are foundational to the structure of research, serving as the factors or conditions that researchers manipulate or vary to observe their effects on dependent variables.
   • The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
   • Presumed to cause changes to occur in another variable. Example: In a study on the effect of study time on test scores, study time is the independent variable.
2. Dependent Variable (DV):
   • The variable that is measured or observed. It is affected by changes in the independent variable.
   • Outcomes or effects that researchers aim to explore and understand in their studies. Example: In the same study, test scores are the dependent variable.
3. Control Variable: Variables that are kept constant or unchanging to prevent them from influencing the outcome. Example: In the study above, test difficulty and environmental conditions might be control variables.
4. Confounding Variable: An outside variable that affects both the independent and dependent variables, potentially skewing results. Those that can cause a false association between the independent and dependent variables, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions about the relationship being studied. Example: Student motivation might influence both study time and test scores.
5. Extraneous Variable: Variables other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable. Not all extraneous variables are confounding. Those that can cause a false association between the independent and dependent variables, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions about the relationship being studied. Example: Noise level during study time.
6. Moderator Variable: A variable that affects the strength or direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Example: Age might moderate the effect of a training program on job performance.
7. Mediator Variable: A variable that explains the process through which the independent variable affects the dependent variable. Example: Self-confidence might mediate the relationship between public speaking training and performance.

Components of a Thesis

Title of the Study

• The title of the study gives a general idea of what the research study is all about.
• It must be clearly stated, concise, and should be limited to at most 15 words if possible.
• The variables of the study are reflected in the title, particularly the relationship among variables and the proposed population.

Examples:

• “Work Values of Nurses and their Clinical Performance in Selected Government Hospitals in Metro Davao.”
• “Self-Concept and Professional Attributes of Physicians in Relation to Patients’ Satisfaction Index.”
• “Thermoregulation of Newborn Infants Utilizing Mineral Water.”

Front Page

Components of Chapter 1

• The Problem and Its Background
• Statement of the Problem
• Hypotheses
• Significance of the Study
• Scope and Limitations

The Problem and Its Background

• This section presents a brief discussion of the rationale and background of the problem or subject of inquiry.
• It serves as a springboard for the statement of the problem.
• Should stimulate the interest of the reader and set the stage for the presentation of the study.

What to write?

1. Rationale of the study. The reason/s why it is necessary to conduct the study must be discussed.
2. Presentation of the problem. The start of the introduction is the presentation of the problem, that is, what the problem is all about. This will indicate what will be covered by the study.
3. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition. This explains a felt problem that needs a solution.
4. Historical background of the problem. This section includes a brief review of the historical background of the research problem.
5. A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance, or phenomenon.
6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product.
7. A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. A sentence or two should show the link between the introduction and the conducting of the researcher.

Statement of the Problem

• The statement of the problem refers to the question that the research seeks to answer.
• The problem must be clearly stated.
• It must be expressed in precise terms, identify its key components, the population, and the major variables of the study which need to be subjected to empirical testing.
• There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the subproblems into which the general problem is broken up. The problem should answer the following questions:
• Why? (aim or purpose)
• What? (subject matter or topic to be investigated)
• Where? (place or locale)
• When? (period or time of the study)
• Whom? (population).

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted.
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered.
5. The population or universe from whom the data are to be collected.

A research problem is:

1. Any significant, perplexing, and challenging situation, foreseen or unforeseen, the solution of which requires reflective thinking.
2. A perplexing situation after it has been translated into a question or series of questions that help determine the direction of subsequent inquiry.

Components of the Statement of the Problem

1. The Major Problem: The major problem directs attention to the purpose of the investigation, particularly the main issue to be answered.
2. The Minor or Sub-Problems:
   • These are problems implicitly contained in the major problem.
   • Supports the major problem and their solutions leads to the solution of the major problem.
   • Serves to guide data collection, measurement, and analysis.

Statement of the Problem Examples

• Qualitative Study
  • Title of the Study: ”Lived Experiences of Caregivers Caring for a Family Member with End-Stage Renal Disease”
  • Specifically, the study aimed to answer the following:
    • How do caregivers describe their lived experiences while caring for family members with End-Stage Renal Disease?
    • How does caring for family members with End-Stage Renal Disease affect caregivers’ life?
    • How do caregivers cope with the challenges of caring for family members with End-Stage Renal Disease?
• Quantitative Study
  • Title: Spiritual Health and Religious Practices as Correlates to the Quality of Life amongst Faculty and Staff
  • To determine the relationship of Spiritual Health and Religious Practices to the Quality of Life amongst Faculty and Staff
  • Example of a Sub-Problem:
    • Specifically, the study aimed to answer the following:
      • What is the level of spiritual health of the faculty and staff?
      • What is the extent of religious practices of the faculty and staff?
      • What is the quality of life of the faculty and staff?
      • Is there a significant relationship between the spiritual health and religious practices of the faculty and staff, and their quality of life?
• Quantitative Study
  • Title: Effects of 10% Sodium Hypochlorite (Chlorine) on the Bacterial Count of Nursing Student’s Clinical Paraphernalia: A Basis for Disinfection Policies in Nursing Schools
  • The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of Sodium Hypochlorite on the bacterial count in terms of Colony Forming Units (CFU).
  • Example of a Sub-Problem:
    1. What is the bacterial count in terms of colony forming units (CFU) of the following nursing paraphernalia before treatment?
       • BP apparatus
       • Thermometer
       • Stethoscope
    2. What is the bacterial count in terms of colony forming units (CFU) of the following nursing paraphernalia after treatment?
       • BP apparatus
       • Thermometer
       • Stethoscope
    3. Is there a significant difference in the bacterial count in terms of Colony Forming Units (CFU’s) of the following paraphernalia before and after treatment?
       • BP apparatus
       • Thermometer
       • Stethoscope
    4. What are the disinfection policies and guidelines that could be developed based on this study?

Hypothesis

• A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific problem raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific problem.
• Research hypotheses state the expectations of the researcher concerning the relationship between variables. These are declarative statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a prediction or a conjecture about the outcomes of a relationship. Usually, researchers are concerned with the null hypotheses.
• Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based. Only questions that require inferential statistics require a hypothesis.

Research Hypothesis vs Statistical Hypothesis

• Research Hypothesis: Referred to as substantive or declarative hypothesis or statements of expected relationships between variables.
  • Example:
    • Infants born to heroin-addicted mothers have the same birth weight as infants born to non-heroin addicted mothers.
    • There is a significant relationship between maternal heroin addiction and the birth weight of infants.
• Statistical Hypothesis: Stated in null form that there exists no significant relationship or difference between the independent and dependent variables.
  • Example:
    • Infants born to heroin-addicted mothers have the same birth weight as infants born to non-heroin addicted mothers.
    • There is NO significant relationship between maternal heroin addiction and birth weight of infants.

Advantages of the Null Hypothesis

1. Scientifically Objective
2. Reflects impartiality of the researcher
3. Minimizes research bias

How to write the hypotheses?

• Research Problem: Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science?
• Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students concerning the different aspects of the teaching of science.
• Title of the Study: Teaching of Science in the High Schools of Silang, Cavite as Perceived by the Science Teachers and Students
• Research Problem: Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method and that of the deductive method in the teaching of science?
• Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive method and that of the deductive method in the teaching of science.
• Title of the Study: Teaching of Science in the High Schools of Silang, Cavite as Perceived by the Science Teachers and Students
• Research Problem: Is there any significant relationship between leadership styles and work engagement among hospital nurses in Indonesia?
• Null hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between leadership styles and work engagement among hospital nurses in Indonesia.
• Research Problem: Which among the variables significantly predict work engagement among hospital nurses in Indonesia?
• Null hypothesis: There is no variable that significantly predicts work engagement among hospital nurses in Indonesia.

Significance of the Study

• It is the importance, responsiveness, or relevance of the expected outcomes of the investigation and its probable effects on a nursing theory, education, and practice.
• Must be able to emphasize the significant contributions of the proposed research study to its target population, to the different sectors in nursing education and nursing service, to society and its implications for future research in nursing.

Benefits to Consider in Writing the Significance of the Study

• Development of new theories and concepts
• Building up expertise and technologies
• Formulation of guides to policymaking and decision-making
• Opening new areas for possible study
• Contribution to the particular field of study or profession in terms of knowledge, skills, and new technology
• Enhancement of nursing care
• Improvement of nursing service and nursing education
• Strengthen research-based intervention
• Personal and societal benefits

Beneficiaries of Research Studies

• The Nursing Profession as a whole
• The Public
• The Nursing Service
• Nursing Education
• Nurse Practitioners
• Nursing Students
• Hospital Administrators

Significance of the Study What to write?

1. The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed.
2. Who will benefit and how they will benefit. Individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study must be shown.
   3.