Lifespan_Psychology_PPT_Y11

LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY

Definition: Lifespan Psychology is the study of continuity and change throughout the lifespan, focusing on four domains of development:

• Physical:

  • Fine motor skills: small muscle movements.

  • Gross motor skills: large muscle movements.

• Cognitive:

  • Ability to think and reason.

  • Verbal fluency: produce words from memories.

  • Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: can’t recall specifc word despite knowing what to say.

• Social + emotional:

  • Encompasses changes in a person’s view of themselves, emotions, and relationships with others.

  • Self-awareness: ability for an individual to observe their thoughts, emotions and behaviours.

  • Self-concept: a view an individual has about their beliefs, likes/dislikes, strengths and weaknesses.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

The lifespan is segmented into 7 developmental stages:

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth)

   • Physical: Fetus moves limbs; can hear mother by 30 weeks.

   • Cognitive: Learns and recognizes speech sounds.

   • Social and Emotional: Responds to mother's emotions.

2. Infancy Stage (Birth to 1 Year)

   • Physical: Develops sitting, crawling, walking,

   • Cognitive: Communicates with cooing and babbling; imitative smiling.

   • Social and Emotional: Forms attachment with caregivers and recognizes their emotions.

3. Childhood Stage (1 to 12 Years)

   • Physical: Gains coordination, learns to ride tricycles.

   • Cognitive: Vocabulary expands to thousands of words.

   • Social and Emotional: Develops self-awareness through peer interactions.

4. Adolescence Stage (12 to 20 Years)

   • Physical: Experiences puberty; motor skills peak.

   • Cognitive: Develops abstract thinking.

   • Social and Emotional: Values peer relationships, explores identity.

5. Early Adulthood Stage (20 to 40 Years)

   • Physical: Achieves peak conditioning and motor skills.

   • Cognitive: Refines verbal and cognitive skills.

   • Social and Emotional: Forms intimate relationships, gains independence.

6. Middle Age Stage (40 to 65 Years)

   • Physical: Decreased agility; challenges in skill acquisition.

   • Cognitive: Increased tip-of-the-tongue experiences; better emotional regulation.

   • Social and Emotional: Possible mid-life crisis and reassessment of life goals.

7. Older Age Stage (65+ Years)

   • Physical: Decline in fine motor skills and slower gross motor abilities.

   • Cognitive: Difficulty in language processing.

   • Social and Emotional: Smaller social networks; more dependency on others.

CHANGES ACROSS DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

• Physical Development: Involves gross and fine motor skills.

• Cognitive Development: Encompasses language skills and reasoning.

• Social and Emotional Development: Influences self-awareness, self-concept, and emotional responses.

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Physical Development

   • Fine Motor Skills: Involves small muscle movements (e.g., writing).

   • Gross Motor Skills: Involves large muscle movements (e.g., running).

2. Cognitive Development

   • Verbal Fluency: Ability to produce words from memory.

   • Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Knowing what to say but struggling to recall specific words.

3. Social and Emotional Development

   • Self-awareness: Observing personal thoughts and behaviors.

   • Self-concept: Beliefs about oneself, including strengths and weaknesses.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN DETAIL

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth)

• Physical: Foetus can move limbs; by 30 weeks, can hear mother’s voice.

• Cognitive: Foetus can learn speech sounds.

• Emotional: May respond to mother’s emotions.

2. Infancy Stage (Birth to 1 Year)

• Physical: Gross skills include sitting, crawling, walking; fine skills include grasp reflexes.

• Cognitive: Communicates through cooing, babbling; begins smiling and imitating.

• Social: Primary caregiver attachment forming; recognizes emotions from caregivers.

3. Childhood Stage (1 to 12 Years)

• Physical: Develops coordination and motor skills (e.g., riding a tricycle).

• Cognitive: Vocabulary expands to thousands of words by age 11.

• Social: Self-awareness develops, interacts with peers, plays with others.

4. Adolescence Stage (12 to 20 Years)

• Physical: Fine and gross motor skills peak; puberty changes.

• Cognitive: Abstract thinking begins to develop.

• Social: Peer relationships gain importance; identity formation.

5. Early Adulthood Stage (20 to 40 Years)

• Physical: Peak physical conditioning; motor skills at their best.

• Cognitive: Verbal skill refinement continues until mid-30s.

• Social: Formation of intimate relationships; increasing independence from family.

6. Middle Age Stage (40 to 65 Years)

• Physical: Slowing down in physical agility; skill acquisition becomes challenging.

• Cognitive: Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon increases; emotional regulation improves.

• Social: Mid-life crises may occur; reassessment of life goals.

7. Older Age Stage (65+ Years)

• Physical: Fine motor control declines; slower gross motor skills.

• Cognitive: Increased difficulty in language processing and production.

• Social: Smaller social networks; increased dependency on others.

BRAIN PLASTICITY

Neuroplasticity

• Neuroplasticity: nervous system’s ability to chainge structure nad function due to experience/injury.

• Brain plasticity: ability of neural connections to grow and reorganise.

• Impact: Structural and functional changes in response to development and learning, especially notable in infancy and adolescence.

• Neurons communicate using electrical impulses to transmit information.

Stages of Plasticity During Infancy

1. Proliferation: Growth and multiplication of neurons.

2. Migration: Neurons move to their final positions in the brain.

3. Circuit Formation: Neurons form connections (neural circuits).

4. Synaptic Pruning: Unused neurons and connections die off, enhancing efficiency.

5. Myelination: Growth of myelin sheaths around axons, improving speed of electrical signals.

The Role of Brain Plasticity in Adolescence

During adolescence, brain plasticity plays a crucial role in the overall development of neural structures:

• Circuit Formation: The formation of neural circuits continues through childhood, peaking in grey matter volume by age eleven in females and twelve in males.

• Synaptic Pruning: This process enhances brain efficiency and specialization, continuing throughout adolescence into early adulthood. This pruning progresses from the back of the brain to the front, with the pre-frontal cortex being the last area to structurally change.

• Myelination: Remaining neural connections undergo myelination, improving signal speed. Notably, full myelination of the pre-frontal cortex is not complete until around age twenty.

• Executive Functions: While children can engage in goal-directed behavior, consistent use of executive functions—such as planning, attention, and impulse control—arises as brain plasticity develops during adolescence.

Developmental Changes in Specific Brain Areas

• Cerebellum: Continues to grow until approximately twelve years in females and fifteen in males, affecting decision-making, emotional regulation, and motivation.

• Corpus Callosum: Thickens through myelination, improving connections between hemispheres, which enhances behavioral and emotional regulation.

• Amygdala: Grows in volume and becomes more reactive to emotional stimuli, influencing impulsive decisions and misunderstandings in social cues.

• Frontal Lobes: One of the last brain regions to mature, affecting the ability to evaluate emotions and control voluntary behavior. Teenagers have reduced white matter in this region, impacting emotional regulation and decision-making capabilities.

• Pre-Frontal Cortex: Undergoes both myelination and synaptic pruning during adolescence, which affects problem-solving, attention, and risk assessment abilities. This area’s development is crucial for understanding and responding to social situations appropriately.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET'S THEORY)

Processes of Schema Formation

Piaget proposed cognitive development involves schemata, which are mental structures organizing experiences.

Infants are born with innate schemata linked to reflexes like rooting and sucking.

New schemata develop through interactions with senses and motor skills after birth.

Cognitive thinking skills are incorporated over time into schemata.

Schemata are altered or created through assimilation and accommodation.

• Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemata.

• Accommodation: Changing existing schemata or creating new ones when faced with new information.

Most new information is processed through assimilation, maintaining cognitive equilibrium.

Assimilation does not change existing schemas, so no cognitive change occurs.

When new information cannot be assimilated, it results in disequilibrium or mental imbalance.

Strengths and limitations of theory

Strengths:

• Foundational Contribution: Made important contributions to understanding how children develop.

• Active Learning Emphasis: Shows that kids learn best when they engage with their surroundings.

• Stage Framework: Outlines clear stages of how thinking develops.

Limitations:

• Underestimation: Kids might be able to think in more advanced ways earlier than he thought.

• Cultural Bias: His theory may not fit all cultures.

• Social Context Neglect: Doesn't consider how social interactions affect learning.

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Develops object permanence.

   • Testing Method: Use the invisible displacement task by hiding an object under a cloth and moving it, allowing infants to see if they can track where the object has gone.

2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Begins to use symbols and engage in pretend play.

   • Testing Method: Conduct the three mountains task, where children are asked to describe what a doll sees from different viewpoints of a model with three mountains.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Develops logical thought about concrete events; grasps conservation.

   • Testing Method: Use the seriation task to have children arrange sticks of different lengths in order from shortest to longest.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): Engages in abstract reasoning and hypothesis testing.

   • Testing method: Pendulum Problem, where students explore how string length, weight, and drop height affect swing speed.

ATTACHMENT THEORY (BOWLBY, 1969, 1988)

• Internal Working Model: Cognitive framework formed early in life based on experiences with caregivers.

• Influence of Bowlby's Theory: Central to Bowlby's Attachment Theory, emphasizing attachment's role in development.

• Secure Attachment: Positive interactions lead to a belief in self-worth and trust in others.

• Insecure Attachment: Negative or inconsistent care results in distrust and relationship difficulties.

• Long-term Impact: Shapes future emotional stability and interpersonal relationships.

Maternal deprivation can lead to:

• Social Issues: Difficulty forming future relationships.

• Emotional Instability: Increased susceptibility to anxiety and depression.

• Behavioral Problems: Higher aggression levels.

• Mental Health Risks: Greater likelihood of developing mental health issues in later life.

• Developmental Delays: Impacts on emotional and cognitive growth.

Key terms

• Attachment: The strong emotional bond formed between infants and caregivers.

• Monotropy: Idea that one primary attachment figure is central to development.

• Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis: Critical period for attachment formation (first 2.5 years) that impacts future relationships.

• Internal Working Models: Templates formed during childhood that shape expectations in future relationships.

Strengths and limitations

Strengths of Bowlby's Theory

• Internal Working Model: Framework linking early caregiver experiences to future relationships.

• Empirical Support: Research validates the positive impact of secure attachments on emotional health.

• Influence on Childcare: Guides practices emphasizing stable caregiver relationships.

Limitations of Bowlby's Theory

• Underestimation of Other Factors: Overlooks the role of peers and culture in attachment.

• Cultural Bias: May not apply universally across diverse family structures.

• Focus on Maternal Bonds: Underemphasizes the influence of other caregivers.

AINSWORTH'S STRANGE SITUATION STUDY (1978)

• Purpose: Measure attachment quality between children and their caregivers.

• Findings: Identified three attachment styles: Secure, Insecure Avoidant, and Insecure Resistant, influencing future relationships.

1. Introduction: Caregiver and child enter a room with toys.

2. Stranger Introduced: A stranger enters, initially silent, then interacts with the child.

3. First Separation: The caregiver leaves the child with the stranger.

4. First Reunion: The caregiver returns; the child’s reactions are noted.

5. Second Separation: The caregiver leaves again, leaving the child alone.

6. Stranger's Return: The stranger comes back and tries to interact with the child.

7. Second Reunion: The caregiver returns again, and the child's responses to both the caregiver and the stranger are observed.

Attachment types

1. Secure Attachment

   • Infant's Behavior: Distressed when separated but easily comforted upon return; uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration.

   • Mother's Behavior: Responsive to infant's needs, fostering trust and security.

2. Insecure Avoidant Attachment

   • Infant's Behavior: Little distress when separated; avoids contact upon return; explores independently without checking back.

   • Mother's Behavior: Indifferent or unresponsive to infant's cues, leading to feelings of neglect.

3. Insecure Resistant Attachment

   • Infant's Behavior: Intense distress when separated; not easily comforted; shows clinginess and resistance.

   • Mother's Behavior: Inconsistent

Criticisms and limitations

Cultural Bias: Findings from Western cultures may not represent diverse attachment styles worldwide due to varying parenting practices.

Short-term Observation: The Strange Situation's brief assessment may not reflect attachment behaviors in real-life contexts.

Limited Attachment Styles: Ainsworth's model simplifies attachment, identifying only three styles and ignoring other potential patterns.

Reliance on Parent-Child Interaction: The study focuses on caregiver-child dynamics in a specific situation, possibly missing broader attachment behaviors.

Potential Stress Influence: The method may induce stress, affecting children's responses and not accurately reflecting their attachment security.

RHESUS MONKEYS (HARLOW, 1958)

Overview of Harlow's Research

In the 1950s-1960s, Harry Harlow studied attachment development in rhesus monkeys, focusing on feeding and maternal bonds. Monkeys showed attachment to cloth pads and low survival in bare cages.

Key Focus

Harlow investigated whether contact comfort or food was more critical for infant-mother attachment.

Methodology

• Participants: Eight newborn rhesus monkeys.

• Materials: Two surrogate mothers (cloth-covered rubber block, wire mesh), milk bottles, cages.

• Design:

  • Independent variable: type of surrogate with milk bottle (cloth or wire).

  • Dependent variable: time spent with each surrogate.

Procedure:

• Each monkey had two surrogates and a milk bottle.

• Time spent clinging was measured. Monkeys preferred the cloth surrogate, spending almost sixteen hours daily with it, highlighting the importance of comfort over food.

Impact

Harlow's research shifted the view from attachment based on feeding to the significance of comfort, influencing parenting roles and enabling mothers to return to work.

Implications for Attachment Theory

Harlow's findings support Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis, showing monkeys without maternal care faced social and emotional issues, including aggression and interaction problems.

Limitations

Harlow's results cannot be generalized to humans due to species differences.

ENRICHED AND DEPRIVED ENVIRONMENTS

Impact on Development

• Enriched: Stimulates intellectual growth; promotes cognitive and social skills.

• Deprived: Lacks stimulation; leads to developmental delays in cognitive and social capacities.

Case Study: Genie, the Wild Child

• Born in 1957, Genie experienced extreme isolation and neglect during her early years, being confined to a small room by her father.

• Her father believed she was mentally retarded, leading to severe limitations on her physical and social development; she was often bound in a crib.

• Isolated from the outside world until age 13, Genie had minimal human interaction, which severely affected her emotional and cognitive growth.

• The lack of exposure to language, social norms, and developmental stimuli resulted in significant cognitive and physical delays; she exhibited behaviors typical of feral children, such as walking on her toes and struggling with verbal communication.

• In 1970, at age 13, Genie was discovered by social services after her mother sought help, leading to her rescue from an abusive environment.

• Her case gained significant media attention due to the shocking circumstances and raised discussions about the critical periods for language and social development.

• After her discovery, Genie was placed in a rehabilitation facility where she received speech therapy and was introduced to social interactions in a supportive environment.

• Despite her rehabilitation efforts, she gained only limited verbal skills, acquiring a few words and phrases but never achieving full language proficiency due to her prior neglect.

• Genie formed complicated emotional attachments with her caregivers, experiencing both affection and distress, as her traumatic history affected her ability to trust and connect.

• Following her initial rehabilitation, Genie was placed into various foster homes, leading to a mixed journey; some foster families provided loving support, while others exploited her for financial gain and media attention. This resulted in uneven emotional support during a critical time for her development.

• Experiences in foster homes varied widely: while some caregivers focused on her growth and recovery, others neglected her needs or used her for publicity, further complicating her adjustment process.

• Throughout her life, Genie faced ongoing psychological challenges related to trauma, emotional attachment issues, and difficulties in social interactions.

• As of now, Genie lives in a private facility, removed from the public eye, which continues to prioritize her well-being and provides a stable environment.

LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY

Definition: Lifespan Psychology is the study of continuity and change throughout the lifespan, focusing on development in four domains: Physical, Cognitive, Social, and Emotional.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception to Birth)

   • Physical: Fetus moves limbs; hears mother by 30 weeks.

   • Cognitive: Learns and recognizes speech sounds.

   • Social and Emotional: Responds to mother's emotions.

2. Infancy Stage (Birth to 1 Year)

   • Physical: Sitting, crawling, walking.

   • Cognitive: Cooing, babbling; mimicking.

   • Social and Emotional: Attachment to caregivers; emotion recognition.

3. Childhood Stage (1 to 12 Years)

   • Physical: Coordination, tricycle riding.

   • Cognitive: Vocabulary expands significantly.

   • Social and Emotional: Self-awareness through peer interactions.

4. Adolescence Stage (12 to 20 Years)

   • Physical: Puberty; peak motor skills.

   • Cognitive: Abstract thinking develops.

   • Social and Emotional: Identity exploration; peer relationships valued.

5. Early Adulthood Stage (20 to 40 Years)

   • Physical: Peak conditioning.

   • Cognitive: Refinement of cognitive skills.

   • Social and Emotional: Intimate relationships formed; gains in independence.

6. Middle Age Stage (40 to 65 Years)

   • Physical: Decreased agility; challenges in skill acquisition.

   • Cognitive: Increased tip-of-the-tongue experiences; better emotional regulation.

   • Social and Emotional: Possible mid-life crisis; life goals reassessment.

7. Older Age Stage (65+ Years)

   • Physical: Declines in fine motor skills; slower gross motor abilities.

   • Cognitive: Difficulty in language processing.

   • Social and Emotional: Smaller social networks; more dependency on others.

BRAIN PLASTICITY

• Neuroplasticity: Ability of the nervous system to change in structure and function due to experience or injury.

• Stages During Infancy: Proliferation, migration, circuit formation, synaptic pruning, myelination.

• Adolescent Plasticity: Circuit formation continues; synaptic pruning enhances brain efficiency; myelination improves signal speed.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET'S THEORY)

• Involves schemata formation through assimilation and accommodation.

• Stages:

  1. Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): Object permanence.

  2. Preoperational (2-7 Years): Use of symbols.

  3. Concrete Operational (7-11 Years): Logical thought; conservation.

  4. Formal Operational (11+ Years): Abstract reasoning.

ATTACHMENT THEORY (BOWLBY)

• Internal Working Model: Cognitive framework based on early caregiver experiences.

• Attachment Styles: Secure, Insecure Avoidant, Insecure Resistant.

• Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis: Importance of early attachments for future relationships.

AINSWORTH'S STRANGE SITUATION STUDY

• Measures attachment quality; identifies types of attachments.

• Findings: Secure, Insecure Avoidant, Insecure Resistant.

HARLOW'S RHESUS MONKEY STUDY

• Showed comfort vs. feeding importance for attachment development.

ENVIRONMENTS' IMPACT ON DEVELOPMENT

• Enriched environments: Lead to cognitive