Shit I STILL Have to Study

• Colonies origins

• Diff between first and second awakening

• Quakers in Pennsylvannia

• Mormonism

• King Phillip’s War

• King George’s War

• Declaratory Act

• Patrick Henry give me liberty of give me death

• Strategies of the Civil War

• First vs Second Constitutional Congress

• Jay Treaty

• Declaration of Sentiments

• Seneca Falls Convention

• Grange Movement

• Commerce Act of 1886

• Indian Appropriation Act

• Sioux Wars

• Specifics of Antebellum Reforms

• Second Great Awakening

• Nullification Crisis

• Platt Amendment

• Hartley Smoot

• Taft Hartley

• Clayton Antitrust Act

Period 1: 1491 - 1607 (Columbus Arrives, first colonies)

Portion of the Exam:

• 4-6% of total test material

• Will NOT appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Columbus arrival

• Native Americans before Columbus

• Spanish Colonies

• Slavery/Encomienda

• English Colonization: Roanoke (disappeared), Jamestown (struggled but succeeded eventually due to John Rolfe), Pilgrims

• French Colonization

• Headright system, House of Burgesses

Notes:

• Christopher Columbus arrives in 1492

  • Beginning of the Contact Period, which ended in 1607 after the English settled in America

  • First Voyage in 1492 found the New World

  • Second voyage from 1493-96 was when he tried to establish a colony but ultimately failed because of conflict with Taino natives, disease, and famine.

  • Established the Colombian exchange:

    • Period of rapid exchange of plants, animals, foods, communicable diseases, and diseases.

    • Old World to New World: horses, pigs, rice, wheat, grapes

    • New World to Old World: corn, potatoes, chocolate, tomatoes, avocado, sweet potatoes.

• Native Americans in Pre-Columbian America

  • Spread of maize, beans, and squash from Mexico from at least 3,500 years ago that started three sisters agriculture

  • Types of society:

    • Northwest: tribes developed permanent societies along ocean to hunt whales and salmon, totem poles, and canoes.

    • Northeast, the Mississippi river valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard: some indigenous societies developed.

    • Great Plains and surrounding grasslands: supported nomadic lifestyles with hunting bison.

    • Southeast: Mostly desert dwellers that were gatherers, but developed into societies that supported farming and raising animals.

• Establishment of Spanish Colonies

  • During the next century, Spain was the colonial power in the Americas.

  • Spanish founded a number of coastal towns in Central and South America and in the West Indies

  • Conquistadors collected and exported as much of the area's wealth as they could.

• Establishment of slavery and the encomienda system in the Americas:

  • Originally, most labor was done by indentured servants (white servants who came to the Americas with debt and were put to work) or Native Americans

    • Problems with indentured servants: felt they were of a higher class than the Natives and weren’t in high enough supply → led to Bacon’s rebellion (1676)

    • Problems with Native Americans: hard to control because they know the land and can escape easily. Also kept dying because of new diseases that the Europeans introduced to the Americas

  • Encomienda system:

    • Colonist was obliged to protect those natives and convert them to Catholicism

    • In exchange, the colonist was entitled to those natives' labor for such enterprises as sugar harvesting and silver mining.

  • As tobacco-growing and, in South Carolina, rice-growing operations expanded, more laborers were needed than indenture could provide. Turned to enslaved Africans to meet these needs.

    • Removed from their homelands and communities, and often unable to communicate with one another because they were from different regions of Africa, enslaved Black people initially proved easier to control than Native Americans

    • Dark skin of West Africans made it easier to identify enslaved people on sight

    • English colonists associated dark skin with inferiority and rationalized Africans’ enslavement

  • Flourished in the South more because of the growth of labor-intensive crops like tobacco or rice.

  • Slavery in the North did not take off as much, but they were still used.

• New World Exploration:

  • Once Spain conquered part of the New World, other nations wanted in as well. The Northern part of America was still mostly undeveloped and had fertile soils in many regions of this new land, opening up virtually endless potential for agricultural profits and mineral extraction

    • Also led to the formation of joint-stock companies: corporate businesses with shareholders whose mission was to settle and develop lands in North America. The most famous ones were the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and later, the Virginia Company, which settled Jamestown.

  • Led to increased conflict with the Native Americans, more of which will become apparent later.

• English Colonization

  • Unlike other European colonizers, the English sent large numbers of men and women to the agriculturally fertile areas of the East

    • England’s first attempt to settle North America came a year prior to its victory over Spain, in 1587, when Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a settlement on Roanoke Island (now part of North Carolina).

    • The colony had disappeared by 1590, which is why it came to be known as the Lost Colony.

    • The English did not try again until 1607, when they settled Jamestown.

  • Story of Jamestown:

    • Jamestown was funded by a joint-stock company, a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king

    • The company was called the Virginia Company—named for Elizabeth I, known as the Virgin Queen—from which the area around Jamestown took its name.

    • The settlers, many of them English gentlemen, were ill-suited to the many adjustments life in the New World required of them, and they were much more interested in searching for gold than in planting crops.

    • Many of the original settlers died quickly because of bad crops and disease, but the colony was constantly infused with more of them.

    • John Rolfe and what he did:

      • One of the survivors, John Rolfe, was notable in two ways. First, he married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, briefly easing the tension between the natives and the English settlers.

      • Second, he pioneered the practice of growing tobacco, which had long been cultivated by Native Americans, as a cash crop to be exported back to England.

      • The English public was soon hooked, so to speak, and the success of tobacco considerably brightened the prospects for English settlement in Virginia.

      • Led to the creation of the plantation based economies

  • Headright system: Settlers were offered 50 acres to move to the Virginia

  • House of Burgesses: start of democracy (kind of), only property-owning, white males could vote on decisions made in it

• French Colonization of North America:

  • French colonized Quebec City in 1608

  • French Jesuit priests attempted to convert native peoples to Roman Catholicism but were more likely to spread diseases

  • French colonists were fewer in number compared to Spanish and English and tended to be single men

  • French settlers intermarried with native women and tended to stay on the move, especially if they were coureurs du bois (“runners in the woods”) who helped trade for furs

• Puritans and Pilgrims:

  • After the Church of Rome turned into the Church of England, Puritans wanted to get rid of old Roman Catholic ideals. However, they were persecuted in England

  • A group of them called Separatists decided to separate from England and travel to North America.

  • In 1620, Separatists set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower, but went off course and landed in modern-day Massachusetts

  • The group decided to settle where they had landed and named the settlement Plymouth.

  • Signed the Mayflower compact, which created a form of government controlled by the people, not a God.

  • The Great Puritan Migration

    • 1629-1642

    • Established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform Anglican church from within)

    • Led by Governor John Winthrop

  • Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England

  • Both Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom in their colonies

  • Both had experienced and fled religious persecution

• Incidents of religious intolerance:

  • Two major incidents during first half of 17th century

  • Roger Williams, a minister in Salem Bay settlement, taught that church and state should be separate

  • Banished and moved to Rhode Island, founded colony with charter allowing for free exercise of religion

  • Anne Hutchinson, a prominent proponent of antinomianism, banished for challenging Puritan beliefs and authority of Puritan clergy

  • Anne Hutchinson was a woman in a resolutely patriarchal society which turned many against her.

• Difference between New England and Chesapeake Bay:

  • Entire families tended to immigrate to New England, but Chesapeake immigrants were often single males

  • Climate in New England was more hospitable, leading to longer life expectancy and larger families

  • Stronger sense of community and absence of tobacco as cash crop led New Englanders to settle in larger towns

  • Chesapeake residents lived in smaller, more spread-out farming communities

  • New Englanders were more religious, settling near meetinghouses

  • Slavery was rare in New England, but farms in middle and southern colonies were much larger, requiring large numbers of enslaved Africans

  • South Carolina had a larger proportion of enslaved Africans than European settlers

Period 2: 1607 - 1754 (Salutary Neglect, Enlightenment, First Great Awakening)

Portion of the Exam:

• 6-8% of total test material

• Will NOT appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Original policy of salutary neglect

• Mercantilism: Navigation acts, wool act, molasses act

• Legislature: bicameral with lower house and upper house

• Different colonies

• Bacon’s Rebellion - 1676 - 1677

• Stono Uprising - 1739

• Salem Witch Trials - 1692 - 1693

• First Great Awakening

• Enlightenment

• Halfway Covenant/beginnings of the Salem Witch Trials

• English - North American Relations

Notes:

• Salutary neglect - when England was largely leaving the colonies alone and allowing them to self govern

  • England regulated trade and government in its colonies but interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible.

  • England set up absentee customs officials and colonies were left to self-govern.

  • England occasionally turned a blind eye to the colonies' violations of trade restrictions.

• However, they also adopted mercantilism, as they used the colonies for raw materials and heavily regulated their trade.

  • Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1673, required colonists to buy goods only from England, sell certain of their products only to England, and import non-English goods via English ports and pay a duty on those imports

  • Navigation Acts also prohibited the colonies from manufacturing a number of goods that England already produced

  • Wool Act of 1699, forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies

  • Molasses Act of 1733, imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies

• Legislatures:

  • Except for Pennsylvania, all colonies had bicameral legislatures modeled after British Parliament

  • Lower house functioned similar to House of Representatives, members directly elected by white, male property holders and had "power of the purse"

  • Upper house made of appointees serving as advisors to governor, had some legislative and judicial powers

  • Most upper house members chosen from local population and concerned with protecting interests of colonial landowners

• Colonies:

  • Connecticut

    • Received charter in 1635

    • Settled by Puritans who left Massachusetts due to disagreements.

    • Hartford was the first settlement.

    • Drafted the Fundamental Orders in 1639, one of the first written constitutions.

    • Established a democratic government with elected representatives.

    • Economy primarily agrarian, with farming as a central activity.

  • Maryland

    • Granted to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore

    • Calvert intended to create haven colony for Catholics and make a profit growing tobacco

    • Offered religious tolerance for all Christians but tension between faiths soon arose

    • Act of Tolerance passed in 1649 to protect religious freedom but situation devolved into religious civil war

  • New York

    • Royal gift to James, king's brother

    • Dutch Republic was largest commercial power of the century and economic rival of the British

    • Dutch had established initial settlement in 1614 near present-day Albany, which they called New Netherland

    • In 1664, Charles II of England waged war against the Dutch Republic and captured New Netherland

    • James became Duke of York, and when he became king in 1685, he proclaimed New York a royal colony

    • Dutch were allowed to remain in colony on generous terms and made up large segment of population for many years

  • New Jersey

    • Given to friends of Charles II, who sold it off to investors, many of whom were Quakers

  • Pennsylvania

    • William Penn, a Quaker, received colony as a gift from King Charles II

    • Charles had a friendship with William Penn and wanted to export Quakers to someplace far from England

    • Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedom and civil liberties

    • Pennsylvania had natural bounty and attracted settlers through advertising, making it one of the fastest growing colonies

    • Penn attempted to treat Native Americans more fairly but had mixed results

    • Penn made a treaty with the Delawares to take only as much land as could be walked by a man in three days. His son, however, renegotiated the treaty, hiring three marathon runners for the same task, thereby claiming considerably more land.

  • Carolina Colony

    • Proprietary colony (English-owned)

    • Split into North and South in 1729

  • North Carolina

    • Settled by Virginians

  • South Carolina

    • Settled by descendants of Englishmen who had colonized Barbados

    • Barbados’ primary export: sugar

    • Plantations worked by enslaved people

  • Georgia

    • Formation of South Carolina and ongoing armed conflicts with Spanish Florida prompted British to support formation of Georgia by James Oglethorpe in 1732

    • Georgia initially banned slavery (soon overturned because they wanted increased revenue like SC)

  • Rhode Island

    • Founded in 1636 by Roger Williams.

    • Established on principles of religious freedom and separation of church and state.

    • Providence Plantations (later Providence) was the first settlement.

    • Known for religious tolerance, attracting diverse settlers including Quakers, Jews, and Baptists.

    • Anne Hutchinson also settled here after being expelled from Massachusetts.

    • Granted a royal charter in 1663, providing self-governance.

    • Economic activities included farming and a significant maritime industry.

    • Played a role in the development of democratic principles and religious freedom.

• Bacon’s Rebellion:

  • Nathaniel Bacon, a recent immigrant, rallied the farmers and demanded Governor William Berkeley grant him authority to raise a militia and attack nearby tribes

  • When Berkeley refused, Bacon and his men attacked the Susquehannock and Pamunkeys, who were actually allies of the English

  • Rebels then turned their attention to Jamestown, sacking and burning the city

  • Rebellion dissolved when Bacon died of dysentery, conflict between colonists and Native Americans averted with new treaty

  • Often cited as early example of populist uprising in America

• Stono Uprising:

  • Took place in September 1739 near Stono River, outside of Charleston, South Carolina

  • Approximately 20 enslaved people stole guns and ammunition, killed storekeepers and planters, and liberated a number of enslaved people

  • Rebels fled to Florida, where they hoped the Spanish colonists would grant them their freedom

  • Colonial militia caught up with them and attacked, killing some and capturing most of the others

• Salem Witch Trials:

  • Took place in 1692, not the first witch trials in New England

  • During the first 70 years of English settlement in the region, 103 people (almost all women) had been tried on charges of witchcraft

  • Never before had so many been accused at once, more than 130 "witches" were jailed or executed in Salem

• In 1691, Massachusetts became a royal colony under new monarchs, suffrage was extended to all Protestants

• War against French and Native Americans on the Canadian border increased regional anxieties

• Puritans:

  • Many second and third generation Puritans lacked the fervor of the original settlers

  • Led to the Halfway Covenant in 1662 which changed rules for Puritan baptisms

    • Prior to the Halfway Covenant, a Puritan had to experience God's grace for their children to be baptized

    • With many losing interest in the church, the Puritan clergy decided to baptize all children whose parents were baptized

    • However, those who had not experienced God's grace were not allowed to vote

  • All of these factors (religious, economic, and gender) combined to create mass hysteria in Salem in 1692

• First Great Awakening in the 1730s and 1740s

  • Wave of religious revivalism in the colonies and Europe

  • Led by Congregationalist minister Jonathan Edwards and Methodist preacher George Whitefield

  • Edwards preached severe, predeterministic doctrines of Calvinism

  • Whitefield preached a Christianity based on emotionalism and spirituality

  • Often described as a response to the Enlightenment, a European intellectual movement emphasizing rationalism over emotionalism or spirituality.

• Enlightenment:

  • European movement that was pushed forward by Isaac Newton and John Locke, among other people.

  • Promoted the idea that human nature was mutable and that knowledge was gained through accumulated experience rather than by accessing some sort of outside truth

  • Ben Franklin

    • Self-made, self-educated man who typified Enlightenment ideals in America

    • Printer's apprentice who became a wealthy printer and respected intellectual

    • Created Poor Richard's Almanack which remains influential to this day

    • Did pioneering work in electricity, inventing bifocals, the lightning rod, and the Franklin stove

    • Founded the colonies' first fire department, post office, and public library

    • Espoused Enlightenment ideals about education, government, and religion

    • Colonists' favorite son until George Washington came along

    • Served as an ambassador in Europe and negotiated a crucial alliance with the French and peace treaty that ended the Revolutionary War.

• English - North American Relations

  • First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609-1614):

    • Conflict between Jamestown settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy over land and cultural differences.

    • Ended with a peace settlement and the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe.

  • Pequot War (1636-1638):

    • Fought in Connecticut and Massachusetts over land and trade disputes.

    • Resulted in near-annihilation of the Pequot tribe and their dispersal or enslavement.

  • King Philip's War (1675-1678):

    • A brutal conflict in New England between Native American tribes and English colonists over land and cultural clashes.

    • Ended with significant losses on both sides and Native American defeat.

  • Yamasee War (1715-1717):

    • Fought in South Carolina between British settlers and Native American tribes over trade practices and land encroachment.

    • Resulted in British victory and weakened Native American resistance in the region.

• Push Pull Factors

  • English Immigrants:

    • Push Factors:

      • Economic hardship

      • Religious persecution

    • Pull Factors:

      • Land ownership opportunities

      • Religious freedom

      • Economic prospects in agriculture, trade, and commerce

    • Arrival: Mostly during the 17th and early 18th centuries, with significant waves continuing into the late 18th century.

  • Scottish Immigrants:

    • Push Factors:

      • Economic hardship

      • Political instability (e.g., Jacobite uprisings)

    • Pull Factors:

      • Economic opportunities in agriculture

      • Availability of land in regions like the Appalachian Mountains

      • Employment prospects in trade, mining, and other industries

    • Arrival: Primarily during the late 18th century, with smaller numbers arriving earlier.

  • Irish Immigrants:

    • Push Factors:

      • Economic hardship and famine

      • Religious persecution (Penal Laws)

      • Political unrest and rebellion against British rule

    • Pull Factors:

      • Land ownership opportunities

      • Economic prospects in agriculture

      • Religious freedom in regions like Pennsylvania, New York, and New England

    • Arrival: Large waves of Irish immigration occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, with significant numbers arriving during the late 1700s.

  • German Immigrants:

    • Push Factors:

      • Economic hardship and overpopulation

      • Religious persecution

    • Pull Factors:

      • Economic opportunities in agriculture, craft trades, and commerce

      • Promise of religious freedom and autonomy in establishing communities (e.g., Pennsylvania Dutch settlements)

    • Arrival: Significant German immigration occurred during the late 17th century and continued into the late 18th century, with substantial numbers arriving in the mid to late 1700s.

Period 3: 1754 - 1800 (Seven Years War, Revolutionary War)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Seven Years War (1754 - 1763)

• Albany Plan of Union - 1754

• Proclomation fo 1763

• Taxation without Representation (Sugar Act - 1764, Currency Act - 1764, Stamp Act - 1765, Townshend Acts - 1767, Quartering Act - 1765)

• Boston Massacre - 1770

• Committees of Correspondence

• Tea Act - 1773

• Boston Tea Party - 1773

• Continental Congress - 1774, 1775

• Battles (Lexington and Concord - 1775, Bunker Hill - 1775, Yorktown - 1781)

• Common Sense - 1776

• Declaration of Independence - 1776

• Articles of Confederation - 1777

• Treaty of Paris - 1783

• US Constitution - passed in 1789 with bill of rights in 1791

• Washington Presidency (1789 - 1797)

• Whiskey Tax (1791), Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

• Jay Treaty - 1794-95

• Adams Presidency (XYZ Affair - 1797, Quasi War - 1798 - 1800) - 1797 - 1801

• Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

Notes:

• Seven Years War (1754-1763):

  • Also called the French and Indian War, it was actually one of several “wars for empire” fought between the British and the French.

  • The war was the inevitable result of colonial expansion, where English settlers moved into the Ohio Valley, and the French tried to stop them by building fortified outposts.

  • George Washington led a colonial contingent, which attacked a French outpost and lost.

  • Washington surrendered and was allowed to return to Virginia, where he was welcomed as a hero.

  • Most Native Americans in the region allied themselves with the French, who had traditionally had the best relations with Native Americans of any of the European powers.

  • The war dragged on for years before the English finally gained the upper hand.

  • When the war was over, England was the undisputed colonial power of the continent.

  • Consequences:

    • Minor resentment against the British government after the Prime Minister changes from William Pitt

    • Even more strained relations with Native Americans for the English as they raise prices and stop paying rin Congressent on their western forts

    • Pontiac’s Rebellion: Ottawa war chief Pontiac rallied a group of tribes in the Ohio Valley and attacked colonial outposts

    • In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, the Paxton Boys, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania murdered several in the Susquehannock tribe.

• Albany Plan of Union

  • Developed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754

  • Proposed an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes to fund the Seven Years War effort

  • Representatives from seven colonies met in Albany to consider the plan

  • A treaty was also attempted with the Iroquois

  • Plan was eventually rejected by the colonies.

  • To support this plan, Franklin created the “Join or Die” political cartoon of a snake divided into multiple pieces

• Proclomation of 1763

  • British be like no spreading past the Appalachians

• Taxation without Representation

  • The Seven Years War put Britain into heavy debt that they needed to pay off somehow. They decided to do pay off their debts by taxing the colonies.

  • Sugar Act (Apr 1764):

    • Placed a tax on molasses not imported from Britain and tried to stop illegal smuggling of it

    • Reinforced the Navigation Acts of 1651

    • Met with hostility from the colonies and a lack of trust in Parliament

    • Also signaled the end of salutary neglect

  • Currency Act (Sep 1764):

    • Prevented the colonies from printing more paper bills

  • Stamp Act (Feb 1765):

    • Made the colonists pay a tax on all printed materials and goods produced within the colonies

    • First direct tax on the colonies from Britain

    • Went against the idea of self-taxation and signaled the possibility of more taxes to come.

    • Pamphlet by James Otis, called The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, put forward the “No taxation without representation” argument

    • Argued for either representation in Parliament or a greater degree of self-government for the colonies

    • Led to the founding of the Sons of Liberty, who were organized colonists that performed protests and boycotts against unfair practices

  • Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766):

    • Although the Stamp Act was repealed, the British government also passed the Declaratory Act, allowing them to tax and legislate the colonies

    • Although they had removed the tax, they had gone backwards in the battle against taxation without representation

  • Townshend Acts (1767):

    • Taxed goods imported directly from Britain, the first such tax in the colonies

    • Some of the tax collected was set aside for the payment of tax collectors, meaning that colonial assemblies could no longer withhold government officials’ wages in order to get their way

    • Suspended the New York legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonists to supply British troops

    • Instituted writs of assistance, licenses that gave the British the power to search any place they suspected of hiding smuggled goods

    • Met with stronger protests than previous ones:

      • Massachusetts Assembly sent letter (Massachusetts Circular Letter) to other assemblies asking that they protest the new measures in unison

      • British fanned the flames of protest by ordering the assemblies not to discuss the Massachusetts letter

      • Colonists held numerous rallies and organized boycotts

      • Boycotts were most successful because they affected British merchants, who then joined the protest

      • Colonial women were essential in the effort to replace British imports with “American” (New England) products

      • After two years, Parliament repealed the Townshend

  • Quartering Act (1765):

    • Made the colonists responsible for housing and feeding British soldiers

    • Even after the Townshend duties were repealed, the soldiers remained, particularly in Boston

    • Officially sent to keep the peace but heightened tensions

• Boston Massacre

  • On March 5, 1770, a mob pelted a group of soldiers with rock-filled snowballs

  • Soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five

  • Propaganda campaign that followed suggested that the soldiers had shot into a crowd of innocent bystanders

  • John Adams defended the soldiers in court, helping to establish a tradition of giving a fair trial to all who are accused

  • Followed by an uneasy status quo

• Committees of Correspondence:

  • Formed by colonists after the Boston Massacre

  • They coordinated opposition to British Parliament and supported American independence during the American Revolution.

  • Appointed by the legislatures in the 13 British American colonies to provide colonial leadership and aid intercolonial cooperation.

  • Formed by patriot leaders to communicate with each other and their agents in Britain

• Other public figures:

  • Mercy Otis Warren and other writers call for revolution

  • John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" unites colonists against Townshend Acts

• Tea Act (1773):

  • The Tea Act was a law passed by the British Parliament in 1773 that granted the British East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the American colonies.

• Boston Tea Party (1773):

  • In response to the Tea Act, colonists sneak onboard ships carrying tea in the Boston Harbor as Native Americans and dump the tea overboard

  • Reportedly done by the Sons of Liberty

• Coercive/Intolerable Acts (1774):

  • Boston Port Act - closed the Boston Port as a way of punishing Boston for its rebellion

  • Massachusetts Government Act - removed Massachusetts ability to govern itself by establishing it as a crown colony with a single appointed governor

  • Administration of Justice Act - gave the governor the ability to move a trial to a different colony or to Great Britain (kind of helped rig trials)

  • Quartering Act of 1774 - allowed high-ranking military officials to demand better accommodations for troops and to refuse inconvenient locations for quarter

• First Continental Congress

  • Convened in late 1774 with representatives from all colonies except Georgia

  • Agreed to impose boycott on British good and came up with laws that colonists wanted repealed

  • Became de facto governments and set parameters for acceptable Parliamentary interference in the colonies

• Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775)

  • Paul Revere’s Midnight Ride:

    • Member of the sons of liberty who rode from Boston to Lexington to help prepare colonial militias fro the British troops

    • Became legendary

  • Lexington:

    • British encountered a group of colonial militia, known as minute men

    • Minimal casualties on both sides of the battle

  • Concord:

    • Large militia than in Lexington

    • Numerous casualties and forced the British to retreat

    • Referred to as “the shot heard round the world”Under the command of General Henry Lee, federal troops marched into western Pennsylvania and successfully quelled the rebellion without significant bloodshed.

• Opinions on the War:

  • Loyalists (gov officials, Anglicans, merchants, minorities) wanted to stay with the British

  • Enslaved people believed that they had better chances with the colonists

  • Quakers wanted peace

  • Patriots were mostly white Protestants who held property

• Second Continental Congress (1775)

  • Made preparations for war by establishing a Continental Army and printing money

  • Chose George Washington as the commander

  • Drafted the Olive Branch Petition, which was a last ditch attempt at peace made by the colonists, but King George III was not interested as the colonies had already started their rebellion

• Common Sense:

  • Thomas Paine publishes Common Sense in 1776, which advocates for colonial independence

  • Accessible to all colonists, even those with less education

  • Helped garner patriot support

  • More successful than other pieces of its time

  • Shows the role of propaganda within the war

  • Provided the basis for the Declaration of Independence

• Bunker Hill (1775):

  • Early battle within the war

  • Although the colonists eventually had to retreat, they inflicted heavy casualties onto the British forces and shocked the British command(1754)ers

  • Garnered international attention, especially from France, for the colonists’ cause

• Declaration of Independence:

  • Signed on July 4, 1776, articulated the principles of individual liberty and governmental responsibility

  • Turned the Revolutionary War into a war for independence

• Articles of Confederation:

  • First national constitution of the United States, proposed in 1777 by the Continental Congress

  • Created little to no central government because of the fear of a tyrannical government

  • Gave the federal government no power to raise an army

  • Could not enforce state or individual taxation, or a military draft

  • Could not regulate trade among the states or international trade

  • Had no executive or judicial branch

  • Legislative branch gave each stain Congresste one vote, regardless of the state's population

• Battle of Yorktown (1781):

  • End of the American Revolution really

  • Cornwallis surrenders to the French Navy and George Washington, ending the war

• Treaty of Paris (1783):

  • Established the boundaries of the new nation finally

  • Formally ended the American Revolutionary War

  • Negotiated between representatives of the United States, including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay, and representatives of Great Britain.

• US Constitution:

  • Constitutional Convention with 55 delegates, all wealthy white men, many of whom owned enslaved people

  • New Jersey Plan:

    • Called for modifications to Articles of Confederation

    • Called for equal representation from each state

  • Virginia Plan:

    • Proposed by James Madison

    • Called for new government based on principle of checks and balances

    • Number of representatives for each state based on population'

  • Founded the three-tiered federal government that we see today with the presidential elections and the electoral college

  • Three-Fifths Compromise: Slaves only count as 3/5 of a person when it comes to representation in Congress

  • Federalist Position:

    • Forcefully argued in Federalist Papers from James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay.

    • Wanted strong central government, ratification of the Constitution, protection of minorities, and promotion of national unity

  • Went into effect in 1789, with the Bill of Rights added in 1791

• George Washington’s Presidency:

  • Exercised authority with care and restraint, created a cabinet with heads of departments, and used veto sparingly

  • Cabinet had Jefferson (Democrat-Repulican) and Hamilton (Federalist)

  • Hamilton proposed the National Bank to help regulate and strengthen the economy. Both houses approved but Washington was uncertain, which led to a debate between people like Jefferson and Madison and people like Hamilton. Eventually, Hamilton won out.

  • This treasury was strong and helped the states repay their debt by giving land to owners on the western frontier

  • The French Revolution also occurred, but the US remained largely neutral as the British were a primary trading partner, while the French helped the US in the Revolutionary War

• Origins of the two party system:

  • Federalist with Hamilton vs Democratic-Republicans with Jefferson

  • Federalists favored a strong federal government, while Democratic-Republicans feared it

• Whiskey Tax and Rebellion:

  • In 1791, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton proposed a tax on domestically produced whiskey as part of his financial plan to alleviate the national debt and fund the new federal government.

  • The tax was primarily aimed at western farmers who distilled surplus grain into whiskey, as it was a common and profitable practice in the region.

  • Opposition to the whiskey tax manifested in various forms, including protests, petitions, and acts of civil disobedience.

  • The resistance culminated in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, when armed groups of farmers in western Pennsylvania rose up against the enforcement of the tax.

  • The rebels engaged in acts of violence and intimidation against tax collectors and government officials, challenging the authority of the federal government.

  • Under the command of General Henry Lee, federal troops marched into western Pennsylvania and successfully quelled the rebellion without significant bloodshed. (Set the precedent of using federal troops to quaff rebellions)

• Jay Treaty (1794-95):

  • In response to the impressment of American sailors and other maritime issues, the US made the Jay Treaty, which wanted to remove Britain from the West coast and establish trade relations with them again.

  • Was highly controversial, because it looked like the US was supporting Britain again.

• Washington leaves office:

  • Washington decides not to rerun after two terms, sets the precedent of not running for more than two terms, which is generally accepted until FDR.

  • Warned against alliances with the outside war, said US should be friendly with everyone, but should have no alliances

• John Adams is elected:

  • Only federalist president, had Thomas Jefferson as a VP because the second place candidate became VP

  • Difficult person to like, mostly let Hamilton do the work, creating tension between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans

  • French Relations:

    • Adams avoided all out war with France, who started impressing US soldiers and seizing American ships after the Jay Treaty

    • Sent three diplomats to France, who were met with French officials that demanded a huge bribe

    • Led to the XYZ affair (1797), with the three French diplomats’ names being replaced with X, Y, and Z, which caused huge anti-French sentiment

    • Negotiated a settlement with France, but entered a Quasi-War in 1798and seizing American ships (minor skirmishes between the US and France with no formal declaration of large scale war, ended in 1800)

• Alien and Sedition Acts:

  • Allowed the government to expel foreigners and jail newspaper editors who wrote against the US

  • Purely political, aimed at destroying new immigrants, especially French ones and was a clear violation of the French Amendment

  • Vice President Jefferson led the opposition against these acts, drafted two resolutions to them, and used those resolutions in his campaign as president. Established a precedent of states using resolutions to express displeasure against the government.

Period 4: 1800 - 1848 (Jefferson to Jackson, Industrial Revolution)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Jefferson First Term - 1801 - 1805

• Marbury vs Madison - 1803

• Louisiana Purchase - 1803

• Missouri Compromise - 1820

• Election of 1804

• Jefferson Presidency 2 - 1805 - 1809

• Embargo Act of 1807

• Non-Intercourse Act - 1809

• Macon’s Bill - 1810

• War of 1812

• Hartford Convetion - Dec 1814 - Jan 1815

• Era of Good Feelings - 1815 - 1825

• Madison Administration - 1809 - 1817

• Monroe Administration - 1817 - 1825

• John Quincy Adams Administration - 1825 - 1829

• Jacksonian Democracy - 1829 - 1837

• Tariff of 1828

• Indian Removal Act of 1830

• Whigs and Election of 1836

• Industrial, Transportation, and Communication Revolutions (late 1700s - mid 1800s)

Notes:

• Jefferson First Term (1800 - 1804)

  • Federalist Party is split, paving the way for the Democratic-Republicans

  • Two candidates compete for the DR nomination: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr

  • Hamilton campaigns for Thomas Jefferson because he feels Aaron Burr is destructive (proves to be true after he wins the New York governor election and Burr kills him in a duel)

  • Significance:

    • For the second time in as many elections, a president was saddled with a vice president he did not want. (Remedied with the twelfth amendment)

    • The other, more important reason the election was significant is that in America’s first transfer of power—from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans—no violence occurred, a feat practically unprecedented for the time.

  • Adam’s did not leave office in a friendly manner, dodging the inauguration and trying to put Federalists into office positions (countered by Jefferson, who removed most of them by his second term)

• Marbury vs Madison

  • William Marbury was appointed as a justice of the peace (a low justice position) on the last day of Adam’s presidency.

  • Jefferson told James Madison, his secretary of state, to block the action.

  • Marbury sues and takes Madison to the Supreme Court.

  • Supreme Court eventually rules against Marbury, strikes down the Judiciary Act of 1789, and establishes the practice of judicial power, allowing the court to judge the constitutionality of laws and decide how they are applied

• Louisiana Purchase

  • Spain gives land to the French in 1802, US realizes its a problem

  • Jefferson authorizes the purchase of the land without congressional approval declaring it as a “treaty”, which was something a president could do

  • New England Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase because they feared (correctly) that more western states would be more Democratic states, and that they would lose political power. Tried to form a plan to secede, but it never took off

• Lewis and Clark Expedition

  • Jefferson sent explorers, among them Lewis and Clark, to investigate the western territories, including much of what was included in the Louisiana territory

  • This trip included Sacajawea as the Shoshoni guide who helped Lewis and Clark negotiate with other Native American tribes on the way up the Missouri River

  • All returned with favorable reports, causing many pioneers to turn their attentions westward in search of land, riches, and economic opportunities

  • Those early explorers also reported back to Jefferson on the presence of British and French forts that still dotted the territory, garrisoned with foreign troops that had been (deliberately?) slow to withdraw after the regime changes of the previous half-century

• Missouri Compromise of 1820

  • Southerners expected Missouri to join the Union as a slave state, but New York Congressman James Tallmadge introduced an amendment to the Missouri statehood bill that would have gradually ended slavery in the new state

  • Legislators finally reached a compromise in 1820, admitting Missouri as a slave state in exchange for admitting Maine as a free state.

  • Congress also prohibited slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory, north of the southern border of Missouri (36°30′ north latitude).

  • Kept the fragile balance between slave states and free states, delaying the civil war.

• Election of 1804

  • In 1804, Jefferson won reelection in a landslide victory

  • During the 1804 elections, Aaron Burr ran for governor of New York

  • Again, Alexander Hamilton campaigned against Burr

  • When Burr lost, he accused Hamilton of sabotaging his political career and challenged him to a duel in which he killed Hamilton

  • Afterward, Burr fled to the Southwest, where he plotted to start his own nation in parts of the Louisiana Territory. He was later captured and tried for treason but was acquitted due to lack of evidence

• Jefferson Second Term

  • British and French start impressing soldiers and blockading trade routes

  • Tensions mount, culminating in British frigate attack on American ship in American waters

  • Jefferson unable to go to war, responds with boycott and increasing military appropriations (Embargo Act of 1807)

• Embargo Act of 1807

  • Jefferson shuts down all American import and export businesses, causing more damage to the US than to Britain and France.

  • Smuggling becomes widespread

  • New England states strongly opposed

  • Led to loss of Democratic Republican Congressional seats in 1808 election

• Non-Intercourse Act of 1809

  • Reopened trade with most nations

  • Officially banned trade with Britain and France

  • Jefferson chooses not to seek third term, endorses James Madison for presidency

• Macon’s Bill No. 2

  • Permitted neither British nor French warships to enter American ports or territorial waters.

  • Repealed the Non-Intercourse Act and restored trade with both Britain and France on a temporary basis.

  • If one nation revoked their edicts and ceased to violate American neutrality, the other had three months to reciprocate.

• War of 1812

  • Madison finally asks Congress to declare war on 1812

  • Fought over trade restrictions, the impressment of American sailors, and British support for Native American Indian

  • Many battles fought along the Canadian border, British capture D.C., but US wins in New Orleans

  • War ends in a stalemate, but spurred American manufacturing and showed that the US could defend against a bigger enemy, contributing to the Era of Good Feelings

  • Treaty of Ghent:

    • Established the Canadian border and ended the fighting for it between the US and Britain

    • Britain promised to abandon the Northwest territory it was trying to build

• Hartford Convention

  • Federalists met in secret to oppose the war

  • Public viewed this convention as unpatriotic, which led to the demise of the Federalist party

  • Continued tradition of Anglophobia

• Era of Good Feelings

  • Only one political party had power in the US

  • Lead to an overall feeling of unity after the War of 1812

  • Also, the US felt powerful because they had won the Battle of Saint Orleans

  • Patriotism!

• Madison Administration

  • Promoted national growth

  • Cautious extension of federal power

  • Championed protective tariffs, interstate road improvements, and rechartering of National Bank (American System/Nationalist Program)

  • Henry Clay lobbied aggressively for American System, often referred to as "Henry Clay's American System" (based on Hamilton’s economic plan of having high land prices, tariffs, centralized bank, and federally-funded transportation systems

• Monroe Administration

  • Considered the start of the Era of Good Feelings

  • Issued the Monroe Doctrine:

    • The United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers.

    • The U.S. recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere.

    • The Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization.

    • Any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States.

    • Reflected the policy of not engaging in world politics unless prompted/forced to (isolationism) from George Washington and the entry into War of 1812

  • Authorized the purchase of Florida

  • Panic of 1819 causes economic turmoil and nearly ends good feelings - first major financial crisis in the United States because of bank failures and land speculation (the purchasing of cheap undeveloped land in the West)

• John Quincy Adams:

  • Won the presidency in the House of Representatives even though Andrew Jackson won both the electoral college and the popular vote

  • Was considered a weak president who didn’t accomplish much legislature and was elected because of the help of Speaker of the House Henry Clay (who he made Secretary of State)

  • Had a large focus on revolutionizing interstate transport (see later)

• Jacksonian Democracy:

  • Jackson was seen as the epitome of a self-made man and had the interests of the West in mind, so he won the election by a large margin

  • Utilized the spoils system to appoint his people into high government places in return for favors

  • Jacksonian democracy characterized by universal white manhood suffrage and a strong presidency

  • Jackson used his popularity to challenge Congress and the Supreme Court in a way that none of his predecessors had with his use of the veto

  • Didn’t want a centralized bank, but did want a strong central government.

  • Considered the most corrupt form of democracy in the United States

• Indian Removal Act of 1830

  • Gold was found on Cherokee land.

  • Jackson believed that relocating Native American tribes to the West would open up valuable land for white settlers and reduce conflicts between settlers and indigenous peoples.

  • The Act led to the infamous Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole Indians were forcibly removed from their homelands and relocated to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

  • The forced removals were marked by immense suffering, as Native Americans were subjected to harsh conditions, disease, starvation, and death along the journey.

• Tariff of 1828

  • Passed during the Quincy Adams administration, continued the policy of isolationism proposed in the Monroe Doctrine

  • Put high import duties on imported goods, especially from England.

  • Led to the Nullification Crisis, a political confrontation between the federal government and the state of South Carolina where South Carolina refused to follow the Tariff of 1828 and Jackson responded with military threats

• Jackson’s Economics:

  • Vetoed the rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States (BUS) and withdrew federal funds to deposit in state "pet" banks

  • Specie Circular, which ended the policy of selling government land on credit, caused a money shortage and a sharp decrease in the treasury, and helped trigger the Panic of 1837

• Whigs and Election of 1836:

  • Van Buren was elected in 1837 during the Panic of 1837

  • However, the Whigs were beginning to gain popularity due to the failures of the Democrats

  • Whigs were a loose coalition united by opposition to Democratic party policies

  • Similar to Federalists in support of manufacturing, opposition to new immigrants, and Westward Expansion

• Industrial Revolution

  • War of 1812 and events leading up to it forced US to become less dependent on imports and develop stronger national economy

  • Cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, revolutionized southern agriculture and increased demand for cotton

    • Spread of cotton as chief crop intensified South's dependence on slave labor

    • “King Cotton” - symbolized the economic power and political influence of the cotton industry, which relied heavily on enslaved labor

  • Textile mills in New England produced thread and hired local women to weave thread into cloth at home

  • Power loom in 1813 allowed manufacturers to produce both thread and finished fabric in own factories quickly and efficiently

  • Mechanization revolutionized farming in the first half of the 19th century, with many machines such as mechanical plow, sower, reaper, thresher, baler, and cotton gin coming into common use

  • BESSEMER PROCESS - very important process that made steel easier to produce, allowed for the construction of large factories and railroad projects

• Transportation Revolution

  • Part of the Industrial Revolution, as it allowed materials to be moved faster

  • Contributed to the Communication Revolution as well

  • Erie Canal and invention of the steamboat (along with the invention of the National Road) allowed materials to be moved East to West faster than before and started the Canal Era (ended later with railways) - around 1825

  • Steamships replaced sailing ships for long sea voyages and railroads replaced land travel

  • Later, as railroads were built, they were more commonly used by 1850

  • The Transportation Revolution by 1855, the cost to send things across America had fallen to one-twentieth of what it had cost in 1825, and they arrived in one-fifth the time

• Communication Revolution

  • The invention of the Telegraph by Samuel Morse in the 1830s revolutionized communications are messages could be sent across the US instantly instead of by mail.

  • Also aided by the transportation revolution, which could transport physical messages much faster than before

• Regional Differences

  • North

    • Technological advances in communications, transportation, industry, and banking helped it become the nation's commercial center

    • Farming played less of a role in northeastern economy than elsewhere in the country

    • Legal slavery became increasingly uncommon in this region throughout the early 1800s

  • South

    • Remained almost entirely agrarian

    • Chief crops- tobacco and cotton required vast acreage

    • Anxious to protect slavery, which the large landholders depended on, Southerners also looked for new slave territories to include in the Union

    • To strengthen their position in Congress and protect slavery from northern legislators

  • West

    • Westerners generally distrusted the North, which they regarded as the home of powerful banks that could take their land away

    • They had little more use for the South, whose rigidly hierarchical society was at odds with the egalitarianism of the West

    • Most Westerners wanted to avoid involvement in the slavery issue, which they regarded as irrelevant to their lives

    • Ironically, western expansion was the core of the most important conflicts leading up to the Civil War.

• Antebellum Reforms:

  • Abolitionism:

    1. Key Events:

       • 1787: Northwest Ordinance prohibits slavery in the Northwest Territory.

       • 1831: Nat Turner's Rebellion prompts widespread fear and discussion about slavery.

       • 1833: American Anti-Slavery Society founded by William Lloyd Garrison.

       • 1849: Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and becomes a conductor on the Underground Railroad.

       • 1852: Publication of Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" galvanizes anti-slavery sentiment.

    2. Key People:

       • William Lloyd Garrison (1805-1879)

       • Frederick Douglass (1818-1895)

       • Harriet Tubman (c. 1820-1913)

       • Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)

    3. Overall Trend:

       • The abolitionist movement grew in strength and visibility during the Antebellum period, fueled by moral outrage over the institution of slavery and inspired by principles of justice and equality.

       • Abolitionists employed a variety of tactics, including moral persuasion, direct action, and political lobbying, to challenge the legality and morality of slavery.

       • Despite facing fierce opposition from pro-slavery interests, abolitionists succeeded in raising awareness about the evils of slavery and laying the groundwork for its eventual abolition.

    Women's Rights:

    1. Key Events:

       • 1848: Seneca Falls Convention in New York marks the beginning of the organized women's rights movement in the United States.

       • 1850: Publication of "The Lily," the first women's rights newspaper, edited by Amelia Bloomer.

       • 1869: National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) founded by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

       • 1872: Susan B. Anthony is arrested for voting in the presidential election, sparking nationwide attention to the suffrage cause.

       • 1878: Introduction of the Susan B. Anthony Amendment (later the 19th Amendment) to Congress, calling for women's suffrage.

    2. Key People:

       • Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)

       • Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)

       • Lucretia Mott (1793-1880)

       • Sojourner Truth (1797-1883)

    3. Overall Trend:

       • The women's rights movement gained momentum during the Antebellum period, fueled by frustration over women's lack of legal rights and opportunities for education and employment.

       • Women's rights activists organized conventions, published newspapers, and lobbied for legal reforms to address issues such as suffrage, property rights, and marital and parental rights.

       • Despite facing significant opposition and setbacks, women's rights activists made gradual progress toward achieving greater equality and recognition of women's rights under the law.

    Temperance:

    1. Key Events:

       • 1826: Formation of the American Temperance Society, which advocates for abstinence from alcohol.

       • 1851: Maine becomes the first state to pass a statewide prohibition law.

       • 1873: Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) founded by Frances Willard, which becomes a leading force in the temperance movement.

       • 1919: Passage of the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages.

    2. Key People:

       • Lyman Beecher (1775-1863)

       • Frances Willard (1839-1898)

       • Carrie Nation (1846-1911)

       • Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906)

    3. Overall Trend:

       • The Temperance Movement gained momentum during the Antebellum period, fueled by concerns over the social and moral consequences of alcohol consumption.

       • Temperance advocates promoted abstinence from alcohol through education, advocacy, and legal measures such as prohibition laws.

       • The movement attracted support from religious groups, women's organizations, and social reformers, and it eventually led to the adoption of national prohibition in the early 20th century.

  • Overall Trend for Antebellum Reform Movements:

    • The Antebellum Reform movements were characterized by a growing sense of social conscience and activism, as Americans sought to address pressing social and moral issues of the time.

    • Reformers employed a variety of tactics, including moral persuasion, advocacy, and legal reforms, to achieve their goals.

    • While progress was often gradual and uneven, the Antebellum Reform movements laid the groundwork for many of the social reforms and movements that followed, shaping the course of American history and contributing to the ongoing struggle for social justice and equality.

Period 5: 1844 - 1877 (Civil War and Reconstruction)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Polk Presidency - 1845 - 1849

• Mexican-American War - 1846 - 1848

• Wilmot Proviso - 1846

• Compromise of 1850

• Uncle Tom’s Cabin - 1852

• Kansas-Nebraska Act and Bleeding Kansas - 1854 - 1859

• Dred Scott Case - 1857

• Illinois Senate Race -1858

• Harper Ferry Raid - 1859

• Election of 1860

• Civil War - 1861 - 1865

• Reconstruction - 1865-1877

• Compromise of 1877

• Freedman’s Bureau

• Sharecropping

• Hiram Revels

• Robert Smalls

Notes:

• Polk Presidency - 1845 - 1849

  • Presidential Election:

    • Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)

    • Whigs:

      • Internal Improvements: Bridges, Harbors, Canals

      • Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)

    • Democrats:

      • Expansionists

      • Borders pushed outward

      • Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)

      • No government involvement in newly added land

    • Polk wins in a close elction

  • Goals:

    • Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)

    • Reduce tariffs

    • Accomplished by end of 1846

  • Expansion under Polk:

    • "54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars

    • Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada

    • Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border

    • Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846

      • Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana

      • Established current northern border of the region

• Mexican-American War

  • Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)

  • Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border

  • Mexican attack on American troops

  • Used border attack to argue for declaration of war

  • Declared war by Congress in 1846

  • Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire

  • War began in 1846

  • Wilmot Proviso: Unsuccessful Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico

    • House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed

    • Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)

  • Treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo

    • Signed on February 2, 1848, in the village of Guadalupe Hidalgo, near Mexico City.

    • Terms included:

      • Recognition of the Rio Grande as the Southern Border of Texas.

      • Cession of territory to the United States, including California and present-day New Mexico, as well as parts of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming.

      • Compensation of $15 million USD to Mexico and assumption of $3.25 million USD in debts owed by Mexico to American citizens.

      • Protection of property rights and civil liberties of Mexican citizens in the acquired territories.

    • The treaty solidified U.S. control over vast expanses of land in the West, facilitating further westward expansion and economic opportunities.

    • However, it also led to the displacement and marginalization of Mexican and indigenous populations in the acquired territories.

• Compromise of 1850

  • Major Players

    • Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky

      • Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850

      • Clarified the final boundaries of Texas

      • Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act

    • John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina

      • Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise

      • Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories

    • Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts

      • Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War

      • Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech

      • Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise

    • Stephen Douglas, Democrat

      • Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850

  • Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted

  • Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide

  • Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C.

  • Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral

• Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852

  • Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends

  • Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe

  • Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”

  • The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed, so that a national railroad could be built through it

  • The act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery north of latitude 36°30' in the Louisiana Purchase territory.

  • Instead of imposing federal restrictions on slavery, the Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed the settlers in these territories to decide the issue through popular sovereignty.

  • Killed the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories.

    • Opposite of the Republican Party we know today (the Democrats were pro-slavery and also the opposite of what we know today)

  • Both pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers flooded into Kansas, aiming to sway the territorial legislature in their favor.

  • The violence included raids, arson, and open battles between pro-slavery "Border Ruffians" from Missouri and anti-slavery "Free-Staters."

  • The events in Kansas intensified national tensions over the issue of slavery and contributed to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861.

• Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.

• The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.

• John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.

• The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.

• The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.

• Civil War:

  • Causes of the Civil War:

    • The primary cause was the issue of slavery. The North and South had fundamentally different economic systems and views on slavery's expansion into new territories.

    • Other factors included states' rights versus federal authority, economic differences, and regional political tensions.

  • Important Battles:

    • First Battle of Bull Run (July 1861): First major land battle of the Civil War, ended in Confederate victory, shattered Northern illusions of a quick war.

    • Battle of Antietam (September 1862): Bloodiest single-day battle in American history, Union victory, led to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation.

    • Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863): Turning point of the war, Union victory, ended Confederate invasion of the North, marked the last major attempt by the Confederacy to invade the Union.

    • Siege of Vicksburg (May-July 1863): Union victory, gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two.

    • Battle of Atlanta (July-September 1864): Union victory, significant blow to the Confederacy's industrial and transportation capabilities.

    • Battle of Appomattox Court House (April 1865): Final battle of the Civil War, Union victory, effectively ended the conflict, leading to the surrender of General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia.

  • Impact on Social Hierarchy:

    • The Civil War profoundly affected the social hierarchy in the United States, particularly regarding race and class.

    • The abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment in 1865 marked a significant shift in the social order, though racial discrimination persisted.

    • The war provided opportunities for social mobility for some, particularly for women who entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, and for African Americans who served in the Union Army and gained their freedom.

    • However, the Reconstruction era that followed the war also witnessed the rise of segregation, Jim Crow laws, and continued racial discrimination in the South, maintaining social hierarchies based on race.

  • Changes Brought by the Civil War:

    • Abolition of slavery: The Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment abolished slavery in the United States.

    • Expansion of federal authority: The Civil War established the supremacy of the federal government over states' rights, setting a precedent for future conflicts between federal and state powers.

    • Economic transformation: The war accelerated industrialization in the North and devastated the agricultural economy of the South, leading to long-term economic changes.

    • Strengthening of nationalism: The Civil War reinforced a sense of national identity and unity among Americans, despite the deep divisions that had caused the conflict.

  • Effects on the North vs. the South:

    • The Civil War had different effects on the North and the South. The North emerged victorious, with its economy and industry strengthened, while the South suffered extensive destruction and economic devastation.

    • The war led to the abolition of slavery in the United States, which had a greater impact on the South, where slavery was deeply entrenched.

    • The South experienced widespread poverty and social upheaval in the aftermath of the war, while the North saw economic growth and urbanization.

    • Social and political divisions between the North and the South persisted long after the war, shaping regional identities and political allegiances for generations to come.

• Reconstruction:

  • Proposed Plans:

    • Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan:

      • Proposed by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863.

      • Offered amnesty to most Confederate soldiers and officials who took an oath of loyalty to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery.

      • Once 10% of a state's voters took the oath, they could form a new state government.

      • Aimed to quickly restore the Union and promote reconciliation between North and South.

    • Radical Republican Plan:

      • Proposed by Radical Republicans in Congress, led by Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner.

      • Advocated for a more punitive approach toward the South and greater protection of the rights of newly freed African Americans.

      • Supported the Wade-Davis Bill, which required a majority of white males in the former Confederate states to pledge allegiance to the Union before Reconstruction could begin.

      • Called for the establishment of military governments in the South and the protection of civil rights through constitutional amendments.

    • Andrew Johnson's Plan:

      • Implemented after Lincoln's assassination in 1865.

      • Similar to Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan but more lenient towards former Confederates.

      • Granted individual pardons to former Confederate officials and wealthy planters who personally petitioned the president.

      • Required the abolition of slavery, repudiation of Confederate debts, and ratification of the 13th Amendment.

  • What Actually Happened:

    • Initially, Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan was implemented in some Southern states, but Radical Republicans in Congress sought to impose stricter terms through the Wade-Davis Bill.

    • However, President Johnson's lenient approach allowed many former Confederate leaders to regain power in the South, leading to the enactment of Black Codes and the disenfranchisement of African Americans.

    • Radical Republicans in Congress clashed with Johnson over Reconstruction policies, leading to the impeachment of Johnson in 1868, though he was acquitted by one vote in the Senate.

    • Ultimately, Reconstruction policies were shaped by a combination of presidential initiatives, congressional legislation, and grassroots activism.

    • Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868 created military zones in the South to prevent it from rising up again

  • Effects:

    • Reconstruction saw the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which abolished slavery, granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to African Americans, and protected their voting rights.

    • Reconstruction brought about significant social and political changes in the South, including the establishment of biracial governments, the election of African American officials, and the expansion of public education.

    • However, Reconstruction also witnessed the rise of white supremacist violence, the emergence of the Ku Klux Klan, and the imposition of Jim Crow laws, leading to the erosion of African American civil rights and the entrenchment of racial segregation in the South.

    • The failure to fully integrate African Americans into the political and economic fabric of the United States during Reconstruction had long-term consequences, contributing to the persistence of racial inequality and social divisions in American society.

  • Successes:

    • All southern men could vote

    • Elected government positions replaced appointed positions

    • Public schools and social institutions created

    • Industrial and rail development stimulated

    • Black people serving in southern governments

    Failures:

    • High tax rates and public opposition

    • Propaganda war against Reconstruction

    • Corruption of Northerners and Southerners

    • Political scandals during Grant's administration

• Compromise of 1877

  • The Compromise of 1877 emerged from the disputed presidential election of 1876 between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden.

  • Tilden won the popular vote, but the electoral votes of three Southern states—Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina—were in dispute, leading to a constitutional crisis.

  • To resolve the deadlock, a bipartisan commission was established to determine the outcome of the election.

  • In a secret agreement, known as the Compromise of 1877 or the Hayes-Tilden Compromise, Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South and end Reconstruction in exchange for Hayes being awarded the presidency.

  • Signaled the end of Reconstruction, also allowed for the resurgence of white supremacy in the South

• Freedmen’s Bureau:

  • Federal agency established in 1865 during Reconstruction.

  • Aimed to aid freedmen (freed slaves) and impoverished whites in the South.

  • Provided food, housing, medical care, education, and legal assistance.

  • Operated from 1865 to 1872.

• Sharecropping:

  • Agricultural system emerging during Reconstruction.

  • Landless farmers/past slaves rented land in exchange for a share of crops.

  • Often trapped farmers in cycles of debt and poverty.

  • Became widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• Hiram Revels:

  • First African American to serve in the U.S. Senate.

  • Represented Mississippi from 1870 to 1871.

  • Served from February 1870 to March 1871.

• Blanche K. Bruce:

  • Second African American to serve in the U.S. Senate.

  • Represented Mississippi from 1875 to 1881.

  • Served from March 1875 to March 1881.

• Robert Smalls:

  • Civil War hero who escaped slavery.

  • Served in South Carolina state legislature and U.S. House of Representatives.

  • Represented South Carolina in the U.S. House from 1875 to 1887.

Period 6: 1865 - 1898 (Industrialization, Big Business, Gilded Age)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Thomas Edison (Lightbulb + power plant)

• Knights of Labor - 1869

• American Federation of Labor - 1886

• Great Railroad Strike of 1877

• Haymarket Square Riot - 1886

• Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890

• Standard Oil - 1870 - 1911

• American tobacco Co - 1890 - 1911

• Carnegie Steel - late 1800s

• Homestead Steel Strike - 1892

• Pullman Strike of 1894

• Plessy v Ferguson - 1896

• Homestead Act - 1862

• Sioux Uprising - 1862

• Nez Perce War - 1877

Notes:

• Thomas Edison:

  • Edison's greatest invention was the light bulb - allowed for the extension of the workday

  • Pioneer work in power plant development was immensely important - Wider availability of electricity

• This period is known as the Age of Invention because there were many technological inventions made and the US saw a lot of economic growth

  • Dominated by ‘robber barons’ or the extremely rich and powerful who controlled manufacturing enterprises

  • Also saw the first labor unions and strikes

• Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890

  • Enacted to combat the growing power of Robber Barons and the rise of powerful trust and monopolies during the period

  • Was initially not applied very much until Theodore Roosevelt (the Trust Buster began using it)

  • Largely the end of laissez-faire policy

• Knights of Labor - 1869

  • Advocated arbitration over strikes

  • Became increasingly violent in efforts to achieve goals

  • Popularity declined due to violence and association with political radicalism

  • One of the first and most significant labor unions in the US

  • Reached 700k - 800k members by 1886

• American Federation of Labor - 1886

  • Not as inclusive as thee Knights of Labor

  • Excluded unskilled workers, confederation of trade unions

  • Refused to accept immigrants, Black people, women among membership

• Great Railroad Strike of 1877

  • Critical turning point in American labor history, as it was one of the biggest, earliest strikes

  • Baltimore and Ohio Railroad announced wage cuts in June 1877

  • Railroad workers there went on strike, leading to a national railroad workers strike

  • Rutherford B. Hayes ends up sending federal troops in to suppress the strikes

  • Continued the tradition of using federal troops to break protests started by George Washington with the Whiskey Rebellion

  • Failed to accomplish much, but still important in the context, as it had a lasting impact on labor unions

• Haymarket Square Riot

  • Peaceful rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago on May 4, 1886 to protest police violence against striking workers and to demand an eight hour workday

  • Dynamite bomb was thrown at police, leading to gunfire and many deaths

  • Soured relations between companies and labor unions, leading to the repression of several organizations and protests in the short term

  • Also angered labor unions though, as they doubled their efforts for fair working conditions

• Standard Oil

  • Operated from 1870 - 1911

  • Largest petroleum business in the US, controlled a monopoly

  • Ordered to dissolve into 33 companies by the US government after the passing of the Sherman Antitrust Act

  • Practiced horizontal integration (buying up competitors to grow your business)

• American Tobacco Co.

  • Founded in 1890 through the merger of several smaller companies

  • Controlled 90% of the production within the US by 1900

  • Broken up in 1911 on the same day as Standard Oil

• Carnegie Steel

  • Became the largest steel producer in the world because of technological innovations and aggressive business tactics

  • Practiced vertical integration (buying up your supply chain so that you could lower your supply prices and raise the prices of your competitors)

• Homestead Steel Strike (1892)

  • Carnegie Steel tried to Warcut worker’s wages, who were already facing bad working conditions

  • These members were part of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, which had previously been successful in negotiating with Carnegie Steel, but was not this time

  • Led workers to go on strike and demand better working conditions from Henry Clay Frick, chairman and chief negotiator during the strike

  • Frick then sends in the Pinkerton group, an aggressive strike breaking task force per se, and violence erupts

  • Finally, the state intervenes and Penn. Gov. Robert Pattinson uses the state militia to break the strike

  • Ultimately failed to accomplish much

• Pullman Strike of 1894

  • George Pullman, who founded the Pullman Palace Car Company, made a company town for workers that provided most basic needs.

  • The town was heavily controlled by the company, had high rents, and bad housing

  • Similarly, Pullman company tried to cut wages, again with bad working conditions, which lead to a strike by the American Railway Union (ARU)

  • Strike spread to a nationwide strike, refusing to work on trains containing Pullman cars, stopping railway traffic nationwide

  • Eventually, President Grover Cleveland ordered federal troops to break the streak so that commerce and mail can continue

  • Unsuccessful in the short term, but had a lasting impact on the issue of worker exploitation.

  • Also important for Eugen V. Debs’s reputation as a labor leader

• Improvement of Life

  • Wealthy and middle class improved while poor suffered

  • Access to luxuries, leisure time, popular diversions like sports, theater, vaudeville, movies

  • Growth of newspaper industry with Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst

• NOTE: primarily affected northern cities, as the South was still lagging behind

  • South during this time still had an agrarian society

  • Farmers were doing sharecropping because they were broke

  • Landlords kept poor in virtual slavery

• Jim Crow Laws

  • Even though the federal government had declared that black people should be given equal rights, state governments in the South didn’t agree

  • Started issuing literacy tests and poll taxes to prevent previous slaves (poor and uneducated) from voting - counter to the 15th Amendment

  • On top of this, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14th Amendment didn’t protect Black from private discrimination and reversed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in 1883

• Plessy v Ferguson - 1896

  • Ruled that “separate but equal” facilities were okay, allowing for legal discrimination still

• Railroads

  • Connected the West to the East, led to the statehood of North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho

  • Led to the mass killing of buffalo and the movement of NA off the land

  • Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, Northern Pacific Railway and Southern Pacific Railroad finished in 1883

• Homestead Act - 1862

  • People could claim up to 160 acres of public land, caused lots of conflicts with Native Americans

  • Based on that idea of Manifest Destiny

  • Led to the Sioux Uprising and the Nez Perce War

• Sioux Uprising - 1862

  • Broken treaties, unfair treatment, and starvation led the Dakota warriors to attack white settlers

  • Led to hundreds of deaths on both sides and the eventual relocation of the Dkaota Sioux to Minnesota

• Nez Perce War - 1877

  • Group of Nez Perce warriors led by Chief Joseph tried to run to Canada after tensions with the US government

  • Chased down by US troops for about 1880 km before being captured on the Canada border

• National Woman Suffrage Association Convention - 1869

  • Crucial role in advancing the woman’s suffrage movement

  • Led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton

  • Women’s suffrage became a much bigger issue during this time period

• Grange Movement and Farmers' Alliances:

  • Grange Movement founded in 1867, with over a million members by 1875

  • Cooperatives for farmers to buy machinery and sell crops as a group

  • Political endorsement and lobbying for legislation

  • Replaced by Farmers' Alliances, allowing women's political activism

  • Grew into political party People's Party (political arm of Populist movement)

    • 1892 presidential candidate James Weaver received over 1 million votes

    • 1896 Populists backed Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan

  • Other groups formed by minority farmers (e.g. Las Gorras Blancas, Colored Farmers' Alliance)

• Tariffs and their Effects

  • Tariff of Abominations (1828) caused Nullification Crisis during Jackson's first administration

  • McKinley Tariff (1890) raised duties on imported goods almost 50%

  • Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894) resembled McKinley Tariff

• US interest in Hawaii

  • American involvement began in 1870s with American sugar producers trading with Hawaiians

  • Hawaii economy collapsed in 1890s due to U.S. tariffs and dependence on trade with U.S.

  • White minority overthrew native government, U.S. annexed Hawaii, angering Japan (40% of Hawaii's residents were Japanese descent)

  • America hoped to gain entry into Asian markets through McKinley's Open Door Policy

Period 7: 1890–1945 (Progressive Era, World Wars, FDR)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Populists and Progressives

• Teddy Roosevelt - 1901 - 1909

• William Howard Taft - 1909 - 1913

• Woodrow Wilson - 1913 - 1921

• US Entrance into WWI

• Government Control During the War

• Role of News Organizations

• Social Changes

• End of WWI

• First Red Scare

• After WWI Economy

• Great Depression

• FDR and the New Deal

• Foreign Policy leading up to WWII

• Entrance into WWII

• US involvement in WWII

• Social Effects of WWII

• End of WWII

Notes:

• The Populist and Progressive Movements

  • Populists:

    • Economic reform: Addressing economic inequality and supporting measures like increased government regulation and bimetallism.

    • Political reform: Increasing democratic participation through initiatives like direct election of senators and opposition to political corruption.

    • Agrarian issues: Focusing on the welfare of farmers through measures like regulating railroad rates and supporting agricultural cooperatives.

    • Social justice: Advocating for workers' rights, women's suffrage, and racial equality.

    • Anti-establishment sentiment: Distrust of established political parties and institutions, seeking to challenge existing power structures in favor of the common people.

  • Progressives:

    • Built on Populism's achievements and adopted some of its goals

    • Social reform: Addressing poverty, labor exploitation, and urbanization through better working conditions and social welfare programs.

    • Political reform: Combating corruption and increasing government accountability through measures like direct primaries and the direct election of senators.

    • Regulation of big business: Controlling the power of corporations and ensuring fair competition through antitrust laws and regulations.

    • Environmental conservation: Advocating for the preservation of natural resources through initiatives like national parks.

    • Education reform: Promoting compulsory schooling, vocational training, and expanded access to higher education.

    • Women's suffrage: Supporting the right of women to vote and participate in civic life.

    • Racial equality: Some progressives advocated for civil rights reforms and addressed issues like segregation and discrimination.

  • Roots of Progressivism:

    • Growing number of associations and organizations

    • Members were educated and middle class, offended by corruption and urban poverty

    • Boost from muckrakers' exposés of corporate greed and misconduct

  • Progressives' Successes:

    • Both local and national level changes

    • Campaigned for education and government regulation

    • New groups for fight against discrimination with mixed success

    • Women's suffrage movement gave birth to feminist movement

    • Wisconsin governor Robert La Follette led the way for Progressive state leaders

  • The Progressive Movement:

    • Prominent leader: President Theodore Roosevelt

    • Progressive income taxes to redistribute nation's wealth

    • Work-class Progressives' victories: work day limitations, minimum wage, child labor laws, housing codes

    • Adoption of ballot initiative, referendum, and recall election

  • President Theodore Roosevelt:

    • Prominent Progressive leader

    • Republican Party's choice for running mate in 1900 election

    • Succeeded McKinley after assassination in 1901.

    • Followed by two other Progressive Leaders in William Howard Taff and Woodrom Wilson

• Teddy Roosevelt

  • Took over after the assasination of William McKinley in 1901

  • Early on, showed liberal tendencies and was the first to use Sherman Antitrust Act against monopolies

  • Nicknamed "Trustbuster" for his efforts to break up monopolies

  • Encouraged Congress to pass Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act to protect workers and consumers

  • Created National Park Service and National Forest Service to conserve natural resources

  • Strongarmed Cuba into accepting the Platt Amendment, which put Cuba under US control. The US occupied Cuba for 10 years, creating Anti-American sentiment

  • Big Stick Policy:

    • Panama Canal (1903):

      • In 1903, Roosevelt supported Panama's independence from Colombia, enabling the construction of the canal under favorable conditions for the United States.

      • The United States Navy played a crucial role in this endeavor, as Roosevelt sent naval forces to ensure Panama's independence and protect the construction efforts.

      • The threat of American military intervention in the region effectively pressured Colombia into relinquishing control over Panama.

      • Roosevelt's administration negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the newly independent Panama, securing rights to construct and administer the canal zone.

    • Venezuelan Crisis (1902-1903):

      • During a dispute over unpaid debts owed by Venezuela to European powers, Roosevelt intervened.

      • He asserted the Monroe Doctrine, warning European powers against military action in the Western Hemisphere.

      • The threat of American intervention, backed by a powerful navy, compelled European powers to accept arbitration, showcasing Roosevelt's willingness to use force to protect American interests.

    • Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905):

      • Roosevelt brokered the Treaty of Portsmouth, ending the conflict between Russia and Japan.

      • His mediation earned him the Nobel Peace Prize, highlighting his use of diplomacy backed by the implicit threat of American military involvement.

    • Dominican Republic Debt Crisis (1905):

      • Roosevelt intervened in the Dominican Republic to manage its financial crisis.

      • He established a customs receivership to ensure debt repayment, effectively taking control of the country's finances.

      • This action demonstrated Roosevelt's readiness to use economic leverage and military might to stabilize nations in the Western Hemisphere.

    • Moroccan Crisis (1905-1906):

      • Roosevelt mediated between France and Germany over their conflicting interests in Morocco.

      • His diplomatic intervention helped prevent a European war and safeguarded American interests in maintaining stability and open markets.

    • Great White Fleet (1907-1909):

      • Roosevelt sent a naval fleet, known as the Great White Fleet, on a worldwide tour.

      • This demonstration of American naval power projected strength and deterred potential adversaries, showcasing the "big stick" in action on a global scale.

• William Howard Taft

  • Pursued monopolies even more aggressively than Roosevelt

  • Known for "dollar diplomacy" - securing favorable relationships with Latin American and East Asian countries by providing monetary loans

  • Became the only former president to serve on Supreme Court of the US as the 10th Chief Justice (1921-1930)

  • Split from Roosevelt in the 1912 Republican primary due to opposing policies

• Woodrow Wilson

  • Distinguished himself from Teddy Roosevelt with his policies referred to as New Freedom

  • Argued that federal government had to assume greater control over business to protect man's freedom

  • Committed to restoring competition through greater government regulation of the economy and lowering the tariff

  • Created Federal Trade Commission, enforced Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, and helped create Federal Reserve System

  • Progressive movement ended after World War I, Spanish Flu outbreak of 1918, and a Red Scare

  • Won the election of 1912 with a policy of neutrality, but it posed immediate problems due to close relationships with England

  • Ended this position of neutrality when German blockades started sinking American passenger/cargo ships. The sinking of the Lusitana is what drove the US into war.

• End of Progressive Era

  • Achieved many of its goals, which resulted in loss of support from interest groups whose ends were met

  • Some say the Progressive movement was brought to an end, in part, by its own success

• US Entrance into WWI

  • Serbia gains independence in 1878 and did not have ethnic diversity or tolerance for migrants

  • Britian and Germany had been engaged in an arms race since 1914

  • Archdue Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated by Gavrilo Philip on June 28, 1914

  • Germany says that it will back Austria-Hungary if it it goes to war

  • Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914

  • Germany declares war on Russia because Russia is supporting Serbia

  • Wilson remains neutral, but the American public is radicalized against Germany after its brutal invasion of Germany

  • On May 7, 1915, German U-Boats sink the Lusitana, a British passenger ship, cause even more anti-German sentiment

  • Wilson wanted to end the war through diplomacy, but still expands the military.

  • The Zimmerman Telegram is intercepted, which says that Mexico will get its land back if it allies with Germany and attacks the US

  • Germany also begins unlimited U-boat attacks on passenger ships in Jan 1917

  • On Apr 2, 1917, Wilson asks Congress to enter the war, which is granted 4 days later.

• Governmental Control during the War

  • Government took control of telephone, telegraph, and rail industries

  • Created War Industry Board (WIB) to coordinate all aspects of industrial and agricultural production

  • Espionage Act in 1917 prohibited interference with the war effort or draft through the U.S. mail system

  • Sedition Act in 1918 made it illegal to try to prevent the sale of war bonds or speak dispEasternaragingly of the government, military, or Constitution

• Role of News Organizations/Propoganda

  • Government helped create frenzied atmosphere through its wartime propaganda arm, the Committee on Public Information (CPI)

  • CPI messages grew more sensational as the war progressed

  • Image of Germans as cold-blooded, baby-killing, power-hungry Huns created through lectures, movie theaters, newspapers, and magazines

  • Led to violence against German immigrants and descendants

• Social Changes:

  • Change in means of employment as women began entering the workforce in droves to replace the men that were going to war (at one point, 20% of factory jobs were held by women), but ended when these men came back

  • Over 500,000 black people migrate North for jobs in wartime manufacturing

• End of WWI

  • Ended in 1918, possibly because of America’s entrance into the war on the Allies side

  • Wilson's Fourteen Points served as basis for initial negotiations

    • Called for free trade, reduction of arms, self-determination, end of colonialism, League of Nations

  • Treaty of Versailles punished Germany, left humiliated and in economic ruin

    • Created League of Nations, but much of Wilson's plan discarded

  • Wilson's return home greeted with opposition over League of Nations

    • Senate debate over Article X curtailed America's independence in foreign affairs

    • Senate split into Democrats (pro-League), Irreconcilables (opposed), Reservationists (compromise)

    • US never joins the League of Nations

• Foreign Policy after WWI

  • Mostly isolationist, avoiding commitment to security arrangements, following Washington’s warning to not get in permanent treaties with countries

  • Evidence:

    • Rejection of the Treaty of Versailles

    • Rejection of the League of Nations

    • Washington Naval Conference (1921-22) - advocated for naval disarmament and prevent an arms race

    • Neutrality Acts (1930s) - to hopefully keep the US out of a second world wars

    • Good Neighbor Policy (1930s) - seeking to improve relations with U.S. military force withdrawal from Haiti and Nicaragua

• First Red Scare

  • After the Russian Revolution in 1917 (put Lenin and his communist government in power), there was an intense fear of communism around the war.

  • The Espionage Act and Sedition Act were used to punish supposed radicals

  • Followed by the Immigration Act of 1918 and the Alien Act of 1918 to restrict immigrants form moving in (put quotas) and target radicals

  • During the Red Summer of 1919, there was an increase in labor protests, leading to tensions over radicals inside the US.

  • In early 1920, government raided suspected radical groups around the country in the Palmer Raids

  • Government abandoned all pretext of respecting civil liberties as agents raided union halls, pool halls, social clubs, and residences

  • Business assumed greater power while unions lost power

  • Strikebreakers and forceful tactics against unions increased under pretext of stamping out radicalism

• After WWI Economy

  • Electric motor drives prosperity

  • Government increasingly pro-business, regulatory agencies assist business instead of regulating

  • Decreased favor for labor unions, strikes suppressed by federal troops

  • Efforts by businesses to woo workers with pension plans, profit sharing, and company events

  • Referred to as welfare capitalism.

  • Henry Ford starts the trend of mass production with his line of automobiles

  • More automobiles leads to people moving into the suburbs

  • People moving into the suburbs leads to better roads and traffic enforcement

  • Consumerism was also fueled by the rise of household appliances and advertising

  • The invention of the TV in 1900 allows for widespread advertisement

  • Founding of the National League (baseball) was boosted by the invention of the TV

  • Entertainment saw growth in movies, sports, and literature with world-class authors like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway

• Prohibition:

  • Banned manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages

  • Roots in reform campaigns of 1830s

  • Mainstay of women's political agendas

  • 18th Amendment outlawed American liquor industry

  • Resentment of government intrusion in private matter

  • Weakened by organized crime in producing and selling liquor

  • Gangster Era inspired many movies and television series

  • Prohibition repealed by 21st Amendment in 1933

• Great Depression (1929 - 1941):

  • Republic candidate Herbert Hoover wins on his promise to end poverty

  • Distribution of wealth was heavily skewed, as the rich earned more than $100K and more than 60% of the country earned less than $12K

  • Americans started accumulating debt in installment credit (initial payment followed by interest payments)

  • Stocks crash on Black Thursday (Oct 24, 1929) and Black Tuesday (Oct 29, 1929)

  • People instinctively pulled their money out of banks, leading to the Banking crisis

  • Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsened the economy

  • Other factors: Europe's economy due to WWI and reparations, overproduction leading to lay offs and low market value, production outstripping ability to buy, concentration of wealth and power in a few businessmen, government laxity in regulation

  • Hoover’s Failure leads to FDR’s election in 1941

• FDR and the First New Deal

  • Directly took on the Great Depression, closing banks and giving them money so that people could withdraw money

  • Fireside Chat helped people regain confidence in the banks so that people put money back in when they reopened

  • The New Deal was a result of a powerful presidency and public confidence in Roosevelt

  • The First New Deal took place during the first hundred days of Roosevelt's administration

  • The Emergency Banking Relief Bill put poorly managed banks under control of Treasury Department and granted government licenses to solvent banks

  • The Banking Act of 1933 created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to guarantee bank deposits

  • Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) provided payments to farmers in return for cutting production, funded by increased taxes on food processors

  • Farm Credit Act provided loans to farmers in danger of foreclosure

  • National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) consolidated businesses and coordinated activities to eliminate overproduction

  • Public Works Administration (PWA) set aside $3 billion to create jobs building roads, sewers, public housing units, etc.

  • Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided grants to states for their own PWA-like projects

  • The government took over the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and expanded its operations for the economic recovery of the region

  • Roosevelt's response to Great Depression was guided by Keynesian economics

  • Keynesian economics argued that government should embark on a program of deliberate deficit spending to revive the economy

  • Keynesian economics was successful during Roosevelt's administration and led to 30 years of economic expansion from 1945 to 1973

• Second New Deal:

  • Emergency Relief Appropriation Act created WPA (later renamed Works Project Administration)

    • Generated over 8 million jobs, funded by government

    • Employed writers, photographers, and artists for public works and local/personal history projects

  • Passed legislation broadening NLRB powers, democratizing unions, punishing anti-union businesses

  • Created Social Security Administration for retirement benefits for workers, disabled, and families

  • Increased taxes on wealthy individuals and business profits

• Foregin Policy Leading Up to WWII

  • Roosevelt put money in the military and tried to help the allies within the limits of the neutrality acts

  • Lend-Lease Act of 1941, allowed the US to lend or lease military equipment to the Allies

• Entrance into WWII

  • In 1936, Hitler broke the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and began moving troops to border areas

  • Germany mounts the Blitzkreig invasion of Poland in 1939

  • Germany also launches an attack on British and starts bombing them in 1940

  • US passes the Lend Lease Act of 1941 to send goods and arms to the Allies

  • FDR asked College to declare war in 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor

  • US Warships begin to escort British military convoys across the Atlantic and attacking U-Boats

• US involvement in WWII

  • Following its entry into the war, the United States undertook massive military mobilization efforts, rapidly expanding its armed forces and industrial capacity to support the Allied war effort.

  • American forces played a crucial role in major Allied offensives, including the North African, Italian, and Pacific campaigns, ultimately contributing to the defeat of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.

• Social Impacts of WWII

  • The wartime economy created new job opportunities, particularly for women and minorities, who entered the workforce in large numbers to fill positions left vacant by men serving in the military.

  • Women took on roles in factories, shipyards, and other industries traditionally dominated by men, challenging traditional gender norms and expanding women's economic opportunities.

  • WWII brought about some advancements in racial integration within the U.S. military. African Americans served in segregated units during the war, but their contributions to the war effort helped challenge racial stereotypes and discrimination.

  • Internment:

    • Over 120,000 Japanese Americans, including men, women, and children, were forcibly removed from their homes and placed in internment camps.

    • Families were given only a few days to settle their affairs, resulting in the loss of homes, businesses, and personal belongings.

    • Japanese Americans were incarcerated in hastily constructed internment camps located in remote and desolate areas, often surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers.

    • Conditions in the camps were overcrowded and harsh, with inadequate housing, sanitation, and medical care.

    • The internment was challenged in court, but the Supreme Court upheld its constitutionality in the 1944 case Korematsu v. United States, ruling that the need to protect against espionage outweighed the individual rights of Japanese Americans.

• End of WWII

  • At the Yalta Conference, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the USSR all met to decide the fate of postwar Europe

  • Resulted in the divison of East and West Europe and the descent of the Iron Curtain/begininng of the cold war

  • After the US dropped atomic bombs on Japan, the Potsdam conference was held. In this conference, the differences between the US and the USSR became more pronounced and the Allies created the Potsdam Declaration to decide what to do with post war Japan

Period 8: 1945 - 1980 (Cold War, McCarthyism, Korean War, Vietnam War)

Portion of the Exam:

• 10-15% of total test material

• Will appear on an FRQ

Major Points:

• Beginning of Cold War - 1947

• Berlin Crisis - 1948

• Second Red Scare + McCarthyism

• Truman Presidency - 1945 - 1953

• Truman’s Fair Deal - 1949

• Korean War - 1950 - 1953

• Eisenhower Years - 1953 - 1961

• JFK Years - 1961 - 1963

• Cold War - 1947 - 1981

• Lyndon B. Johnson - 1963 - 1969

Notes:

• Beginning of Cold War - 1947

  • United States, scared of another World War, was at odds with the Soviets.

  • Truman Doctrine and Containment Policy said that the US should contain communism/stop its growth rather than fighting against it

  • Marshall Plan - sent $12 billion to Europe to help rebuild its economy

  • NATO formed with Canada and Western Europe countries in 1949 to keep the Soviets at check

• Berlin Crisis - 1948

  • Berlin is divided into West and East Berlin

  • Soviet’s try to impose a blockade on Berlin, but the Berlin airlift keeps it supplied

  • Soviet’s eventually give up

• Second Red Scare

  • The rise of communism in Europe (again) caused a large amount of anticommunist sentiment within the US

  • Alger Hiss, a former official in the State Department, was found guilty of consorting with a communist spy

  • Investigations of 3 million federal employees is ordered by Truman

  • Leads to McCarthyism

    • Joseph McCarthy starts launching investigations into supposed communists in many sectors of Society

    • Leads to wrong accusations and persecution of thousands of American citizens

    • Tries to weed out communists within the Army, but is stopped and loses most of his influence

    • Anti-communist ideals continue afterwards, but McCarthy steps out of the limelight

• Truman’s Fair Deal

  • Advocates for economic policies to support minimum wage workers

  • Desegrregated the armed forces and ended racial discrimination in military service

  • GI Bill of Rights helps returning veterans with education bills and low cost housing loans

  • Also pursued a heavy civil rights agenda

• Korean War

  • Communist North Korea invades South Korea

  • United States responds with a UN peace force attack, helping South Korea push back all the way to the China border

  • China enters the war on North Korea’s side, pushing US and South Korea back to the 38th Parallel

  • Douglas MacArthur, the leader of the peace force, recommends an all-out war with China, but Truman decides against it and fires MacArthur

  • Peace talks begin soon after, but war drags on for two more years

  • At this point, Truman is unpopular so Dwight Eisenhower is elected in the 1952 Presidential Election

• Eisenhower Years

  • Domestic Policies:

    • Modern Republicanism: Eisenhower embraced a moderate conservative approach known as "Modern Republicanism," which aimed to balance traditional Republican principles of fiscal conservatism with a willingness to maintain and expand social welfare programs initiated by the New Deal.

    • Interstate Highway System: Eisenhower championed the construction of the Interstate Highway System, a massive infrastructure project aimed at improving transportation and facilitating economic growth and national defense.

    • Civil Rights: While Eisenhower publicly supported civil rights and desegregation, his actual actions were often cautious and limited. He faced criticism for his handling of civil rights issues, particularly his response to events such as the Brown v. Board of Education decision and the integration of Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas.

    • Economic Policies: Eisenhower pursued policies aimed at promoting economic growth and stability, including maintaining low inflation and unemployment rates. He also advocated for balanced budgets and fiscal responsibility.

  • Foreign Policy:

    • Cold War Strategy: Eisenhower pursued a policy of "containment" in dealing with the Soviet Union and communist expansion, following the strategies outlined in the Truman Doctrine and the policy of "massive retaliation," which relied on the threat of nuclear weapons to deter aggression. Led to the idea of Mutually Assured Destruction, where one nuke fired would guarantee the Destruction of both the US and the USSR

    • Arms Race: The Eisenhower administration oversaw a significant expansion of the United States' nuclear arsenal and the development of new weapons systems, contributing to an arms race with the Soviet Union.

    • Space Race: Eisenhower's presidency coincided with the early years of the Space Race, as the United States and the Soviet Union competed for supremacy in space exploration. The launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik in 1957 prompted concerns about American technological and scientific competitiveness.

    • Foreign Interventions: Eisenhower authorized covert operations and interventions in countries perceived to be vulnerable to communist influence, including Iran, Guatemala, and Cuba.

    • Eisenhower Doctrine: Aimed to protect Middel East and its oil because it was important to the US’s growth.

• John F. Kennedy

  • Seen as young, ambitious, and intellectual, leading to his election in 1960

  • Cuban Missile Crisis

    • Inherited from his predecessors

    • Soviet Nukes in Cuba threaten the US

    • Tried to solve it with the Bay of Pigs invasion (failed, strengthened Castro’s hold on Cuba)

  • Cold War

    • Also inherited from his predecessors

    • Believed more in ending the war through diplomacy

  • Civil Right’s Agenda

    • Supported women's rights

      • Established presidential commission to remove obstacles to women's participation in society

      • Congress passed the Equal Pay Act (1963) requiring equal pay for equal work

      • Employers still found ways to bypass the law

    • Embraced Black civil rights late in his presidency

      • Enforced desegregation at the University of Alabama and the University of Mississippi

      • Asked Congress to outlaw segregation in all public facilities

• Lyndon B. Johnson

  • Took over immediately after JFK’s Death, used sympathy for JFK’s Death to win a huge majority

  • Won by 15 million popular votes and 434 electoral votes over Goldwater

  • Huge majority allowed him to pass a lot of legislature

  • Shifts in Political Trends:

    • Complete change in the Democratic Party’s philosophy

    • Southerners began voting for the Republican Party because the Democrats wanted equality now

    • Black voters started supporting Democrats

  • Waged a war on poverty and inequal rights (Great Society):

    • Economic Opportunity Act (Mar 1964)

      • Created 100,000 federal jobs, like what FDR did with the CDC, to equalize opportunity

      • Also asked state and federal governments to create an additional 200,000 jobs

      • Provided funding for work study programs

    • Civil Rights Act (1964)

      • Parts:

        • Voting Rights

        • Public Accomodations

        • Desegregation of Public Facilities

        • Desegregation of Public Education

        • Commission on Civil Rights

        • Nondiscrimination in Federally Assisted Programs

    • Voting Rights Act (1965)

    • Medicare and Medicaid (1964)

    • Education

      • Head Start Program - 8 week program for kids aged 3 to 5

      • Elementary and Secondary Education Act - created funding for education in low-income school district

    • Urban Renewal with the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 - new, better housing in cities with low home morgages and decent rent

    • Arts and Humanities

      • Created National Endowment for the Humanities

      • Created National Endowment for the Arts

    • Environmental Initiatives

      • Water Quality Act (1965)

      • Motor Vehcile Air Pollution Control Act (1965)

      • Child Safety Act (1966)

  • Backlash to his Great Society movement:

    • Cost a lot of money, so there was a general backlash

    • Nixon tried to undo a lot of it, but that failed for him.

• New Left (1960s)

  • New Left ideals included elimination of poverty and racism, and end to Cold War politics

  • The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was formed in 1962 with leftist political agenda

  • The Free Speech movement was formed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1964

  • The Beat Movement started in the 1950s and challenged conservatism with works promoting bohemian lifestyles, drug use and non-traditional art

  • Mostly college students challenging the old status quo

• Women’s Rights

  • National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in 1966 to fight for legislative changes, including the Equal Rights Amendment

  • The modern movement for gay rights began in the 1960s, with the first Gay Pride parades

  • Feminists fought against discrimination in hiring, pay, college admissions, and financial aid, and control of reproductive rights

  • The Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade (1973) enabled women to obtain abortions in all 50 states within the first trimester

• Counterculture

  • Mario Savio's speech on December 3, 1964, spoke against "the operation of the machine"

  • Rebellion against "the establishment" also took the form of nonconformity, typified by the counterculture of the hippies

  • Hippies, who didn’t want to conform to societal expectations, would often have long hair, tie-dyed shirts, drug use, and communal living

• Environment

  • EPA founded in 1970

  • Reflects the trend of Democrats focusing more on the environment, which changed with FDR and the progressive movement

• Vietnam War timeline

  • Background:

    • Initially, the U.S. provided military and financial support to the French, who were fighting against communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam's struggle for independence.

    • After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the Geneva Accords divided Vietnam into North Vietnam (communist) and South Vietnam (non-communist), with elections planned for reunification. However, the U.S. supported South Vietnam and prevented the elections fearing a communist victory.

  • JFK:

    • Sent advisors into South Vietnam to help them (really was premature war movements)

  • LBJ:

    • Gulf of Tonkin Incident - American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin were supposedly attacked, led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resoltuion, allowed LBJ to declare war

    • First ground trooops landed in Vietnam in 1965

    • Bombing of North Vietnam with Agent Orange and Napalm begins

    • Wanted total vicotry, pushing more and more troops into Vietnam

  • Nixon:

    • Began pulling troops out after his election

    • Signed the Paris Peace Accord in 1973 to end American participation in the war and “bring our boys home”

    • Eventually let Saigon fall in 1975

  • Tet Offensive, a brutal attack by North Vietnam, showed the American Public that maybe the US wasn’t winning the war

  • My Lai Massacre showed the American Public the brutality that was going on, leading to backlash against LBJ

  • Leaking of the Pentagon Papers (1971) again showed the AMerican Public how many resources were being poured into this losing effort

• Nixon:

  • Elected in 1968 after the public turned against LBJ because of the Vietnam War

  • Domestic Problems:

    • Divide in Americans (conservative/liberal, counterculture, etc.)

    • Stagflation (ongoing recession + increasing inflation)

  • Turned China into an ally after the Sino-Soviet Split

  • Watergate:

    • 1971: Nixon has a tape recording system installed in the White House.

    • May 1972: The bugging of the Democrat HQ at Watergate.

    • June 17, 1972: Five men are arrested trying to break-in to the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate hotel to get confidential political information.

    • August 9, 1972: The Washington Post reports that the Watergate break-in was part of a larger campaignof political espionage and sabotage.

    • October 10, 1972: The FBI establishes that the Watergate break-in was linked to President Nixon's re-election campaign.

    • January 8, 1973: Five Watergate burglars plead guilty and two White House aides are indicted.

    • July 24, 1974: The Supreme Court rules Nixon must hand over the tapes of his White House conversations.

    • April 30, 1973: Nixon accepts the resignations of his two top aides as evidence of their involvement is collected.

    • August 5-7, 1974: The "smoking gun" tape, which revealed that Nixon wanted the FBI to cover up the Wategate scandal, is released to the public.

    • August 8, 1974: Richard Nixon becomes the first president to resign so that he isn’t the first one to be impeached.

    • September 8, 1974: Gerald Ford pardons Richard Nixon for any crimes he may have committed while in office, ending the Watergate scandal.