Untitled Flashcards Set

Frederick Jackson Turner: A prominent historian best known for his "Frontier Thesis," presented in 1893. He argued that the American frontier played a crucial role in shaping the nation's democracy, individualism, and innovative spirit. According to him, the closing of the frontier marked the end of a critical era in U.S. history, influencing debates about expansion and national identity.

Helen Hunt Jackson: An American writer and activist who highlighted the mistreatment of Native Americans through her book A Century of Dishonor (1881). The book documented government injustices and violations of treaties, sparking reform efforts to improve Native American rights.

George Custer: A U.S. Army officer and cavalry commander famous for his role in the Indian Wars. He led his troops into the Battle of Little Big Horn (1876), where they were overwhelmingly defeated by a coalition of Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, marking a significant Native American victory.

Ida B. Wells: An African American journalist, educator, and activist who fought against lynching in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She co-founded the NAACP and used her investigative reporting to expose racial violence and inequality in the South.

Booker T. Washington: A leading African American educator, author, and speaker who promoted economic self-reliance and vocational training for Black Americans. He founded the Tuskegee Institute and advocated a gradual approach to racial equality, often contrasting with the more immediate demands of other leaders.

W.E.B. Du Bois: A sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist who co-founded the NAACP. He opposed Booker T. Washington's incrementalism, instead advocating for immediate equality and higher education for a "Talented Tenth" of African Americans to lead social progress.

Henry Bessemer: An English engineer who developed the Bessemer process, a method for mass-producing steel by blowing air through molten iron to remove impurities. This innovation revolutionized the steel industry and facilitated the construction of railroads, skyscrapers, and bridges.

Samuel Morse: An inventor and artist credited with developing the telegraph, a device that transformed long-distance communication. He also co-created Morse code, a system of transmitting textual information via dots and dashes.

Alexander Graham Bell: A Scottish-American inventor who created the first practical telephone in 1876. His invention revolutionized global communication, and he later worked on advances in sound technology and speech education for the hearing impaired.

John D. Rockefeller: Founder of Standard Oil Company and one of the wealthiest individuals in history. He employed horizontal integration to monopolize the oil industry, reducing competition and creating a vast economic empire. He later became a philanthropist, funding educational and medical initiatives.

Andrew Carnegie: A Scottish-American industrialist who led the expansion of the steel industry in the U.S. He practiced vertical integration by controlling all aspects of steel production, from raw materials to distribution. He was also a philanthropist, funding libraries and educational institutions.

J.P. Morgan: A financier and banker who played a key role in consolidating industries and stabilizing the U.S. economy during financial crises. He facilitated mergers, such as the creation of U.S. Steel, and heavily influenced corporate finance during the Gilded Age.

Cornelius Vanderbilt: An industrial magnate who amassed wealth through railroads and shipping. He played a crucial role in modernizing transportation infrastructure and establishing efficient networks for trade and commerce in the 19th century.

Frederick Taylor: Known as the father of "scientific management," he introduced methods to improve industrial efficiency by optimizing labor productivity. His principles, often called Taylorism, influenced factory systems but faced criticism for dehumanizing workers.

Mark Twain: A celebrated author and humorist whose works, such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, captured the complexities of American life. He coined the term "Gilded Age" to critique the era's superficial prosperity and underlying corruption.

Charles Darwin: An English naturalist whose theory of evolution through natural selection profoundly influenced science and society. His ideas also inspired controversial interpretations, such as Social Darwinism, used to justify economic and racial inequality.

Samuel Gompers: Founder of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), he advocated for better wages, hours, and working conditions for skilled laborers. He emphasized collective barining and focused on practical, incremental reforms.

Terrance Powderly: Leader of the Knights of Labor, a labor organization that sought broad societal reforms, including an eight-hour workday, better wages, and an end to child labor. He promoted inclusivity, welcoming skilled and unskilled workers.

Eugene V. Debs: A labor leader and five-time presidential candidate for the Socialist Party. He organized strikes, including the Pullman Strike, and advocated for workers' rights, socialism, and industrial unionism.

Henry Cabot Lodge: A Republican senator and foreign policy advocate who supported U.S. imperialism. He opposed the League of Nations, fearing it would compromise American sovereignty.

Jane Addams: A social reformer and founder of Hull House, one of the first settlement houses in the U.S. She worked to improve living conditions for immigrants and the poor while advocating for women's suffrage and peace.

William “Boss” Tweed: A political boss who controlled New York City's Tammany Hall, a Democratic Party political machine. He was infamous for corruption and graft, embezzling millions from public funds while maintaining voter support through patronage.

Joseph Pulitzer: A newspaper publisher who popularized investigative journalism and sensationalist reporting. He established the Pulitzer Prizes and played a significant role in shaping modern media.

William Randolph Hearst: A powerful media magnate and newspaper publisher who revolutionized journalism by popularizing sensationalism, or "yellow journalism," to captivate readers and shape public opinion. His influence extended into politics, where his publications swayed national policy and contributed to the onset of the Spanish-American War.

Buffalo Bill Cody: A legendary entertainer and showman best known for his Wild West shows, which dramatized life on the frontier and featured reenactments of historical events, sharpshooting exhibitions, and Native American performers, creating enduring myths about the American West.

P.T. Barnum: Renowned showman and entrepreneur who co-founded the Barnum & Bailey Circus, known as "The Greatest Show on Earth." Barnum became famous for blending entertainment, marketing, and sensational spectacle, including his promotion of unique attractions and curiosities.

Scott Joplin and Jelly Roll Morton: Trailblazers in American music; Scott Joplin, known as the "King of Ragtime," composed influential pieces like "The Maple Leaf Rag," which defined the ragtime genre. Jelly Roll Morton, a pioneering jazz musician, expanded the genre's boundaries, blending blues, swing, and improvisation to shape the sound of early jazz.

Carrie Nation: A fervent temperance activist who gained notoriety for her aggressive methods, such as smashing saloon bottles and bar fixtures with a hatchet, as part of her campaign against alcohol and for the prohibition movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A leading figure in the women’s rights movement, Stanton co-organized the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and played a central role in drafting the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for gender equality, including women’s suffrage. She remained an influential advocate for social and legal reforms.

Susan B. Anthony: A key leader in the women’s suffrage movement, Anthony worked tirelessly for women’s voting rights and co-founded the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Her activism laid the groundwork for the eventual passage of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote.

Walter Rauschenbusch: A theologian and leading proponent of the Social Gospel Movement, which sought to apply Christian ethics to address societal problems such as poverty, inequality, and labor rights. His writings and sermons inspired a generation of social reformers to focus on justice and compassion.

Edward Bellamy: Author of Looking Backward, a utopian novel that envisioned a future society based on socialist principles of cooperation, equality, and technological progress. The book became a bestseller and inspired progressive movements advocating for economic and social reforms.

Jacob Riis: A pioneering photojournalist and social reformer whose work, How the Other Half Lives, used photography and narrative to expose the squalid living conditions in New York City tenements. His efforts led to public awareness and significant housing reforms.

Upton Sinclair: A muckraking journalist and novelist whose book The Jungle exposed the unsanitary and exploitative conditions in the U.S. meatpacking industry. The public outcry it sparked led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act in 1906.

Ida Tarbell: An investigative journalist and muckraker who authored The History of the Standard Oil Company, a detailed exposé of John D. Rockefeller's monopolistic practices. Her work contributed to antitrust legislation and heightened public awareness of corporate abuses.

Frank Norris: A novelist whose book The Octopus dramatized the conflicts between wheat farmers and powerful railroad monopolies in California, shedding light on economic exploitation and corporate control over agriculture.

Lincoln Steffens: A journalist and author of The Shame of the Cities, a groundbreaking series of articles that exposed corruption in municipal governments across the United States and called for political and social reforms.

Queen Liliuokalani: The last reigning monarch of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani opposed the increasing control of foreign interests in her kingdom. She was deposed in 1893 during a U.S.-backed coup that ultimately led to Hawaii's annexation by the United States.

Alfred Thayer Mahan: A prominent naval historian and strategist whose influential book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, argued that naval dominance was key to national strength and global influence. His ideas shaped U.S. naval policies and imperial ambitions in the late 19th century.

John Hay: A diplomat and U.S. Secretary of State who played a crucial role in promoting the Open Door Policy, which sought to ensure equal trade opportunities for all nations in China while maintaining Chinese territorial integrity.

William Jennings Bryan: A populist politician and three-time Democratic presidential candidate, Bryan was known for his eloquent "Cross of Gold" speech, which advocated for the free coinage of silver to help farmers and laborers suffering under the gold standard's economic constraints.

Laissez-faire economics: An economic philosophy advocating minimal government interference in business and markets, emphasizing free enterprise and competition as drivers of prosperity.

Manifest Destiny: The belief that U.S. expansion across the North American continent was not only inevitable but divinely ordained, often used to justify territorial acquisitions and the displacement of Native peoples.

The Grangers: A social and political organization of farmers in the late 19th century, focused on addressing issues like unfair railroad rates and advocating for cooperative action to protect agricultural interests.

Grange Laws: State laws enacted in the 1870s to regulate railroad and grain storage rates, reflecting the Grangers' influence in promoting farmers' rights against monopolistic practices.

Transcontinental Railroad: A rail system completed in 1869 that linked the eastern and western United States, revolutionizing transportation, trade, and westward settlement.

Homestead Act: A federal law passed in 1862 that granted 160 acres of public land to settlers willing to farm it for at least five years, incentivizing westward expansion.

Munn vs. Illinois: An 1877 Supreme Court case upholding states' authority to regulate private industries, such as railroads and grain warehouses, when they serve public interests.

Wabash vs. Illinois: An 1886 Supreme Court ruling that limited states' ability to regulate interstate commerce, ultimately leading to federal oversight through the Interstate Commerce Act.

Morrill Land Grant: Legislation passed in 1862 that provided federal land to states to establish colleges focusing on agriculture and mechanical arts, expanding access to higher education.

Populist Party (People’s Party): A political movement formed in the late 19th century to advocate for farmers and laborers, calling for reforms such as free silver, government control of railroads, and direct election of senators.

Sodbusters: Settlers of the Great Plains who adapted to the challenging environment by building homes from sod and developing dry farming techniques.

Comstock Lode: A massive silver deposit discovered in Nevada in 1859, sparking a mining boom and contributing to the economic growth of the western U.S.

The Frontier Thesis: Historian Frederick Jackson Turner’s 1893 argument that the American frontier was crucial in shaping the nation's democracy, individualism, and innovative spirit.

The closing of the frontier: Declared by the Census Bureau in 1890 when it determined that there was no longer a discernible line of unsettled land, symbolizing the end of a major era in U.S. history.

The reservation system: Government policy that designated specific lands for Native American tribes, often forcing relocation and restricting traditional ways of life.

Sioux Wars: A series of armed conflicts between the U.S. government and the Sioux tribe during the late 19th century, primarily over land and treaty violations.

Dawes Act: An 1887 law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots and promoting private land ownership.

Ghost Dance Movement: A spiritual revival among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, advocating resistance to U.S. policies and the hope for cultural renewal.

Battle of Wounded Knee: A massacre in 1890 where U.S. troops killed over 200 Sioux men, women, and children, marking the end of major Native American resistance.

Battle of Little Big Horn: An 1876 conflict in which Sioux and Cheyenne warriors, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, decisively defeated General Custer’s forces.

“New South”: A post-Reconstruction vision advocating for industrialization, economic diversification, and modernization of the Southern economy while maintaining racial segregation.

Sharecropping: An agricultural system where tenants farmed land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crops, often trapping farmers in cycles of debt.

Plessy vs. Ferguson: An 1896 Supreme Court decision that upheld "separate but equal" segregation laws, legitimizing racial discrimination.

Jim Crow laws: State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the South, institutionalizing inequality for African Americans.

Lynchings; lynch mobs: Extrajudicial killings, often racially motivated, used to terrorize and maintain social control over African Americans in the South.

Atlanta Compromise: A speech by Booker T. Washington in 1895 advocating for racial cooperation and gradual progress through vocational education and economic self-reliance.

NAACP: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded in 1909 to combat racial injustice through legal action and advocacy.

Niagara Movement: A civil rights group led by W.E.B. Du Bois, calling for immediate racial equality and opposing Booker T. Washington's approach.

“Talented Tenth”: W.E.B. Du Bois’s concept of developing leadership among the top 10% of educated African Americans to advance social progress.

Bessemer process: A revolutionary steelmaking technique that significantly reduced production costs and facilitated the growth of industries like railroads and construction.

Vertical integration: A business strategy where a company controls all stages of production, from raw materials to distribution, to reduce costs and increase efficiency.

Horizontal integration: A business strategy where companies merge or acquire competitors in the same industry to eliminate competition and dominate the market.

Taylorism: Also known as scientific management, a system designed to improve industrial efficiency by analyzing workflows and optimizing labor productivity.

Capitalism: An economic system characterized by private ownership of resources and production, where goods and services are exchanged in free markets to generate profit.

Entrepreneurship: The process of identifying opportunities, taking risks, and innovating to create and manage new businesses or products.

Social Darwinism: The application of Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, often used to justify economic inequalities, imperialism, and racism.

Eugenics: A controversial movement aimed at improving human genetic traits through selective breeding, often associated with discriminatory policies.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire: A tragic 1911 factory fire in New York City that killed 146 workers, leading to significant workplace safety reforms and labor rights advocacy.

Unionization: The process of forming or joining labor unions to collectively negotiate better wages, working conditions, and benefits.

Knights of Labor: A 19th-century labor union open to workers of all trades, advocating for broad social reforms such as an eight-hour workday.

American Federation of Labor (AFL): A national labor union founded in 1886, focusing on skilled workers and practical economic issues like wages and hours.

Haymarket Strike: An 1886 labor protest in Chicago advocating for an eight-hour workday, which turned violent after a bomb exploded during a rally.

Homestead Strike: An 1892 labor strike at Carnegie Steel, marked by violent clashes between workers and private security forces over wage cuts.

Pullman Strike: A nationwide railroad strike in 1894 triggered by wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing, leading to federal intervention.

Ethnic enclaves: Urban neighborhoods where immigrants settled, preserving cultural traditions while adapting to American life.

Exoduster movement: A migration of African Americans from the South to Kansas in the late 19th century, seeking opportunities and escaping racial oppression.

Nativism: A political and social ideology favoring native-born citizens over immigrants, often associated with restrictive immigration policies.

Hull House: A settlement house founded in Chicago by Jane Addams, providing social services, education, and support for immigrants and the poor.

Tenements: Overcrowded, poorly built urban housing that housed many immigrant and working-class families during the industrial era.

Settlement houses: Community centers in urban areas offering educational programs, healthcare, and support to help immigrants and the poor integrate into society.

14th Amendment: A constitutional amendment granting citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guaranteeing equal protection under the law.

Birthright citizenship: The legal principle granting citizenship to anyone born within a country’s territory, regardless of parental status.

Chinese Exclusion Act: An 1882 federal law that prohibited Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States, reflecting widespread anti-Chinese sentiment.

US vs. Wong Kim Ark: An 1898 Supreme Court decision affirming the right of citizenship to all individuals born in the United States, including children of Chinese immigrants.

White collar jobs: Professional, office-based occupations requiring specialized skills or education, typically associated with administrative or managerial roles.

Blue collar jobs: Manual labor occupations, often in industries such as manufacturing, construction, or maintenance.

HBCUs: Historically Black Colleges and Universities, established primarily after the Civil War to provide higher education opportunities for African Americans.

Philanthropy: Charitable giving by individuals or organizations to support public causes, such as education, healthcare, and the arts.

Socialism: An economic and political system advocating public or collective ownership of resources and industries to ensure equitable distribution of wealth.

Social Gospel Movement: A Protestant reform movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, promoting the application of Christian ethics to address social injustices.

NAWSA: The National American Woman Suffrage Association, a leading organization advocating for women's right to vote in the early 20th century.

Suffrage/franchise rights: The right to vote in elections, a key demand of reform movements for women and marginalized groups.

Temperance movement: A social movement advocating the reduction or prohibition of alcohol consumption to improve societal morals and public health.

WCTU: The Women’s Christian Temperance Union, a prominent group in the temperance movement that also supported women’s suffrage and social reform.

Anti-Saloon League: A powerful lobbying organization advocating for national prohibition of alcohol, instrumental in passing the 18th Amendment.

Pure Food and Drug Act: A 1906 law ensuring the safety and labeling of food and medicines, responding to public outrage over unsafe products.

Meat Inspection Act: A 1906 law mandating sanitary conditions in meatpacking facilities, inspired by Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle.

Imperialism: A policy of extending a nation’s influence through diplomacy, military force, or colonization to gain political and economic control.

“The invisible hand”: A concept by Adam Smith describing the self-regulating nature of free markets, where individual pursuits collectively benefit society.

Protective tariffs: Taxes on imported goods designed to protect domestic industries by making foreign products more expensive.

“Gold, God, and Glory”: A phrase summarizing the motives for imperialism, emphasizing economic gain, religious missionary work, and national prestige.

Open Door Policy: A U.S. policy advocating equal trade opportunities in China, aimed at preventing domination by any single foreign power.

“White man’s burden”: A justification for imperialism based on the belief that it was the duty of Western powers to civilize non-Western peoples.

Patronage: The practice of giving government jobs and favors to political supporters as a reward for their loyalty.

Civil service: A system of government employment based on merit and qualifications rather than political affiliation.

Pendleton Act: An 1883 law reforming the federal workforce by requiring merit-based hiring and competitive exams for government positions.

Populist Party: A late 19th-century political movement representing farmers and workers, advocating for reforms like direct election of senators and monetary policy changes.

Omaha Platform: The 1892 political manifesto of the Populist Party, calling for economic reforms such as free silver, income tax, and government regulation of railroads.

Graft: The use of political power for personal gain, often involving corruption or bribery.

Honest graft: A term coined by George Washington Plunkitt to describe using insider knowledge for personal or political benefit without overt illegality.

Credit Mobilier: A major 1872 scandal involving fraudulent railroad contracts and bribery of government officials to avoid investigation.

Gold standard: A monetary system where currency is backed by gold reserves, limiting inflation but constraining money supply flexibility.

Free Silver: A late 19th-century movement advocating the unrestricted minting of silver coins to expand the money supply and aid debtors.

Cross of Gold Speech: William Jennings Bryan’s 1896 speech criticizing the gold standard and advocating for free silver to support farmers and workers.

American Progress by John Gast: A painting symbolizing Manifest Destiny, depicting Columbia, a personification of the United States, bringing progress and civilization westward, while displacing Native Americans and wildlife.

The Frontier Thesis by Frederick Jackson Turner: A historical argument that the American frontier was vital in shaping the nation’s democratic values, individualism, and innovation, and that its closing marked a significant turning point in U.S. history.

A Century of Dishonor by Helen Hunt Jackson: A book exposing the systemic mistreatment and broken treaties imposed on Native Americans by the U.S. government, aimed at generating public awareness and reform.

“The Gospel of Wealth” by Andrew Carnegie: An essay promoting the idea that the wealthy have a moral obligation to use their riches to benefit society through philanthropy, rather than hoarding wealth.

“Wealth of Nations” by Adam Smith: A foundational economic text that outlines the principles of free market economics, emphasizing the role of self-interest and competition in promoting prosperity.

“The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today” by Mark Twain: A satirical novel that critiques the greed and corruption of America's post-Civil War industrial era, coining the term "Gilded Age" to describe its superficial prosperity.

“Looking Backward” by Edward Bellamy: A utopian novel envisioning a future society in 2000 where economic inequality is eliminated through socialism, inspiring progressive and reformist movements.

Thomas Nast cartoons (criticism of Boss Tweed): Political cartoons that exposed the corruption of Tammany Hall and its leader, Boss Tweed, helping to rally public opposition and lead to his downfall.

“How the Other Half Lives” by Jacob Riis: A photojournalistic work documenting the poor living conditions of immigrants in New York City tenements, sparking calls for housing reform.

“The Jungle” by Upton Sinclair: A novel exposing the harsh conditions and unsanitary practices in the meatpacking industry, leading to public outcry and the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act.

“The History of Standard Oil” by Ida Tarbell: An investigative exposé on the monopolistic practices of John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company, which led to significant antitrust reforms.

“The Octopus” by Frank Norris: A novel illustrating the struggles of farmers against the exploitative practices of railroad monopolies in California, highlighting economic injustice.

“Shame of Cities” by Lincoln Steffens: A collection of investigative reports exposing political corruption in urban America, emphasizing the complicity of business and political leaders.

“The Influence of Sea Power Upon History” by Alfred Thayer Mahan: A treatise arguing that naval strength is crucial to a nation’s global power and prosperity, influencing U.S. imperialist policies.