paleolithic time period where over 95% of the humans have occupied the world as hunter-gatherers Agricultural Revolution (aka Neolithic/New Stone Age) a cultivation of plants and domesticating of particular animals Egalitarian principle where everyone is equal, no matter class or gender (ex. hunter-gathers) pastoral societies groups of people who depended on animals (ex. herders, nomads) chiefdoms agricultural village societies that have a "chief" that inherits power and privilege who conquers others through generosity (beginnings of inequality) Cahokia present-day St. Louis chiefdom that emerged in North America's eastern woodlands in 1200 C.E. civilization refers to societies based in cities and governed by states (product of agriculture) patriarchy idea of male superiority and dominance as a value in civilizations caste system (based on Hinduism) socioeconomic levels in a stratified society Hinduism oldest, largest, and most prominent polytheistic religious tradition in India that puts a focus on the spiritual world and practices Brahmins highest caste made of priests that presided over the needs of the gods and goddesses Upanishads a collection of sacred texts that elaborate on Hindu beliefs, such as the idea of Brahmins, the World Soul, and the final and ultimate reality Moksha Hindu concept of liberating the soul Samsara rebirth or reincarnation Karma pure actions that resulting in rebirth in a higher social position or caste Siddhartha Gautama former prince that became the first Buddha after going on a quest of enlightenment; mission was to teach Buddhism eightfold path the Buddhist path that, when followed, one could expect to achieve enlightenment/nirvana nirvana an indescribable state where an individual has achieved enlightenment and cleansed themself of greed, hatred, and delusion Theravada Buddhism where the Buddha is portrayed as a wise teacher and model to students (Confucian relationship of teacher/student) Mahayana Buddhism offered divinity and a spiritual path that Theravada Buddhism lacks Tibetan Buddhism gave special authority to Lamas and put an emphasis on the preparations for Death (ex. prostration, visualizations, meditation, arts) Lamas teachers in Tibetan Buddhism Bhaki Movement known as the Monks of Hinduism, is is the intense devotion to India's many gods/goddesses through songs, prayers, and rituals Vishnu a Hindu god who is protector and preserver of those associated with mercy and goodness Shiva a Hindu god that focuses on destruction (so that the universe be recreated) Confucianism associated with class inequality, patriarchy, feudalism, superstition, etc; a model of social and political harmony that focuses on the 5 core relationships as deemed by Confucius 5 Confucian Relationships unequal relationships: father/son, husband/wife, older brother/younger brother, teacher/student, ruler/subject Han Dynasty golden age of China where Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state Filial Piety the honoring of one's ancestors and parents to teach reverence dedicated to the emperor/state officials Daoism A religion in China that focuses on worshipping the natural phenomena of the universe's beauty (nature) Dao the path to achieving withdrawal from the human world into the natural world Yin (female) and yang (male) belief of the unity or complentarity of opposites; maintaining a sense of balance Yellow Turban Rebellion The beliefs of Daoism that caused a Chinese peasant rebellion to fight against the oppression of governments and landlords Abrahamic Faiths made up of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam since they all followed the teachings of Abraham Judaism the monotheistic religion of the Jews that were able of experiencing God as a divine person, accessible to all; laid the foundations for Islam and Christianity Jesus of Nazareth a young Jewish craftsman/builder who was also a "wisdom" teacher who got persecuted for teaching his Christian beliefs Saint Paul an early convert whose missionary journeys that led to the development of the small Christian communities Roman Catholic/Eastern Orthodox split When the the Pope became the dominant leader of the Roman Catholic Church, his authority caused the division between the Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodoxes. Muhammad Ibn Abdullah the founder and prophet of Islam who is believed to be God's final revelation to human kind Quran revelations that Allah had commissioned Muhammad to write an transcript; the holy book of Islam Umma the community of all the believers of Islam Sunni Islam advocates for established order that only practiced under the beliefs of the Prophet, Muhammad--believed Abu Bhakr should successed Muhammad Shia Islam a minority group that were believed to be oppressed by the Sunni's; they believed Ali should be the successor of Muhammad Ulama Muslim religious scholars who devoted their life to passing on the core teachings of the faith Sufism belief that one should dedicate themselves to the teachings of Muhammad in order to reach spiritual union with Allah Silk Roads trade route that linked China & Mediterranean Sea, which derived its name for its most popular trade product Sea Roads sea-based network that transversed the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea linking people of southern China and eastern Africa Sand Roads (aka trans-Sahara trade routes) linked North Africa and the Mediterranean World AP EXAM TIP: Be able to give examples of factors that attract people to belief systems. In a Buddhist society, it did not matter what race, gender, or class someone was, for they could still achieve enlightenment. This hope was engraved in many lower class people who were excited at the fact they could achieve it too. In Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, people were encouraged to follow the teachings of Jesus and Muhammad, as they were seen as God's revelation to humans. It promises that through these teachings, one can achieve salvation, removal of sins, and afterlife. AP EXAM TIP: Major belief systems often divided and subdivided across time and place. A few examples include Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism; Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodoxes, and Protestants; Sunni Islams and Shia Islams. AP EXAMP TIP: Be able to provide examples of the expansion and contraction of major religions over time. For Islam, the faith was quickly spread through Afro-Eurasia through trade and conquest. However, Hinduism contracted as a result, since many followers were converted to Islam and their lands were taken. Christianity was spread through the use of missionaries and the Romans. AP EXAM TIP: You should know the factors that led to divisions within major belief systems. For Christianity, when the Pope emerged as the dominant leader of the church, this caused a divide between the Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodoxes. Similarly, in Islamic, dispute between who or if Muhammad had a successor resulted in the division of Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. AP EXAM TIP: Be ready to provide examples of how power was used to promote religion, and vice versa. In the Han Dynasty, the Chinese peoples official ideology was Confucianism, which focused on the unequal relationships between people. This gave power to those believed to be superior while stripping freedoms from the minority. The spread of Islam in Afro-Eurasia through conquest and trade westward and eastward only grew the empire. AP EXAM TIP: Compare features of leadership in major religions, using the ulama in Islam as one example. The ulama in Islam served as the teacher and preserver of the sharia law and the faith. Like the Buddha, they devoted their life to teaching their respective faith. In Christianity, the Pope embraced the ideologies of the Roman Catholic church, praising this sect of the religion. PK QUESTION: Why did some Paleolithic peoples abandon earlier, more nomadic ways and begin to live a more settled life? Paleolithic peoples began to abandon earlier, more nomadic ways and begin a more settled life as a result of the gradual cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals. Ultimately, when these groups of people were able to settle and develop the food they needed for survival, it became easier. Despite the consequences of malnutrition and disease, the growth of civilizations and development of innovations (like irrigation) were more significant. PK QUESTION: What was revolutionary about the Agricultural Revolution? The Agricultural Revolution was the first time in history that nomads and hunter-gathers could develop surplus amount of food rather than hunting for it. The domesticated lifestyle changed our society entirely. PK QUESTION: What development led to the rise of the First Civilizations? The Agricultural Revolution led to the rise of the first societies, and, as a result, the first civilizations. PK QUESTION: What was the role of cities in the early civilizations? In early civilizations, cities served as political and administrative capitals, cultural hubs--generating art, architecture, literature, ritual, and ceremony--, marketplaces, and manufacturing enterprises. It allowed for trade diffusion to occur cross-culturally. PK QUESTION: In what respects did the various civilizations of the pre-1200 world share common features? Civilizations in the pre-1200 world shared similarities in several forms. The Arab Empire found likeness with that of the Mali Empire, the Songhay Empire, and the Inca Empire, all seen through their imperial settings. The Greeks in Europe, the Mayans in Mesopotamia, and the Swalihi's in East Africa were all highly-competitive city-states. Further, the Indian and Chinese social setting and organization were structured alike, for birth determined social statuses, and there was little mobility to gaining a new status. Religious and cultural traditions branded the people into this stratified society. For all these societies, the bottom of the stratification levels were characterized by slaves and those of coerced labor. Patriarchy, also, was common to the social aspects of all these civilizations. PK QUESTIONS: In what ways did the religious tradition of South Asia change over the centuries? The emergence of the Hindu religious tradition focuses on the polytheistic aspects, embracing the deities (gods and goddesses). While the Brahmins were responsible for presiding over the needs and wants of these gods/goddesses over sacrifices, offerings, and rituals, Indian thinkers argued for a more unified, philosophical understanding of reality--one that focused less on the spiritual world. Thus, the Upanishads composed by a group of anonymous thinkers elaborated on ideas, such as the Brahman, the World Soul, and the final and ultimate reality. These ideas preached that the individual human soul was a part of Brahman, the goal being to achieve union with him (a method of enlightenment). PK QUESTIONS: To what extent were Buddhist teachings similar to Hindu beliefs? Both Buddhist teachings and Hindu beliefs highlighted achieving nirvana and enlightenment, as to avoid rebirth and reincarnation. Although the two shared this goal, Buddhism believes any person could achieve it whereas Hindus believe solely the elite could. PK QUESTIONS: What is the difference between the Theravada and Mahayana expressions of Buddhism? Theravada portrayed the Buddha as a wise teacher and model but not divine. The religion was more psychological than truly religious even though the Gods were never denied existence. In the end, only monks and nuns could achieve enlightenment in Theravada. In Mahayana, enlightenment was available to everyone possibly in their lifetime even if they lived a normal life. They also emphasized spiritual wisdom and compassion unlike the Theravada. PK QUESTIONS: How did the evolution of the cultural traditions in India and China differ from one another? In India, the emergence of Hinduism catalyzed the Buddhist beliefs and traditions, shaping the two in a similar manner. Both wished to achieve enlightenment, yet Hinduism believed only the elite would. While Hinduism remained the "religion of the people in India," Buddhism spread quickly throughout China. But by 1200, Buddhism had largely disappeared in India, propelling the spread through China. However, for the Chinese, dreadful centuries of disorder and turmoil made thinkers propose new ways to restore tranquility, effectively developing the classical cultural tradition of China: confucianism. Similarly, as the Confucian thinking gathered attention, Daoism emerged. PK QUESTIONS: In what ways can Confucianism be defined as a secular or "humanistic" philosophy rather than a supernatural religion? Confucianism had a secular outlook on society and didn't find it necessary for more educated people to look to gods to keep a social harmony. Although they acknowledged them, achieving moral improvement was their sole goal. PK QUESTIONS: What was distinctive about the Jewish religion? The Jews were distinctive because they believed in only one God who was of utter holiness and purity, set far above the world of nature. Yet people could communicate with him personally. PK QUESTIONS: In what ways was Christianity transformed in the given centuries following the death of Jesus? Christianity became the official Roman state religion. It developed a hierarchical organization that was completely patriarchal. The bishop of Rome emerged as the dominant leader (pope) in western Europe - not Eastern. Split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox branches. PK QUESTIONS: Explain the similarities and differences in the spread of Islam and Christianity. Christians suffered from Roman persecution originally which meant before they could keep growing (fear kept people from joining), they needed to negotiate with a hostile state. Islam, however, established a state and a huge empire very quickly and did not have to overcome any major obstacles. This led Islam to spread quicker, initially. The spreading was similar in the fact that the religion grew very quickly once it was adopted by a super empire. PK QUESTIONS: In what ways did cross-cultural interactions drive change in the pre-1200 world? 1) Culturally different societies encountered one another through their empires, since large states incorporated areas of exchanging ideas, religions, diseases, food, and products into their society. This increased communication between states. 2) Networks of exchange and commercial exchange, like the Silk Roads, Sea Roads, and Sand Roads, changed the lives of people, class levels, the creation of new states, and the diffusion of culture, religion, innovation, and disease. Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) ruled over large parts of an ancient Chinese civilization with a relatively stable political rule and proficient literary arts Why are the centuries of the Song Dynasty in China sometimes referred to as a "golden age"? (culturally) known as a "golden age" of arts and literature, setting standards of excellence in poetry, landscape painting, and ceramics In what ways did women's lives change during the Song Dynasty? Because Confucianism had been adopted as the official belief of the Song Dynasty, they emphasized women's inferiority to men; ex. women making silk and men running workshops and factories Chinese examination system a political test that was revived by the Han Dynasty in order to staff the Chinese bureaucracy and provide social mobility to the poor yet prestigious China's economic revolution a major rise in prosperity under the Song Dynasty; marked by rapid population growth, urbanization, economic specialization, development of internal waterways, and increasing in production and technological innovation Hangzhou China's capital during the Song Dynasty with a population at its height of more than a million Chinese technologies inventions in printing, both woodblock and movable type, led to the world's first printed books, and relatively cheap book became widely avaliable Grand Canal an over 1000 mile waterway that linked the Yellow River in the north to the Yangzi River in the south; facilitated movement of goods, allowing the peasants to grow specializes crops for sale while purchasing rice or other staple goods in the market Footbinding Chinese practice of tightly wrapping girls' feet to keep them small, putting an emphasis on delicacy and small size that was important for the female beauty Silla, Koryo, Joseon Kingdoms a succession of dynasties in Korea that allowed it to maintain its political independence while participating in a tributary relationship with China Hangul a phonetic alphabet developed for Korean writing Mandate of Heaven Chinese emperor's right to rule was determined by the Gods Chu Nom a variation of Chinese writing that was known as "southern script" Samurai warrior class in feudal Japan Bushido known as the way of the warrior kami sacred spirits associated with human ancestors and various natural phenomena Tale of Genji a Japanese novel that provides an intimate picture of the intrigues and romances of court life Abbasid Caliphate an Arab dynasty that had ruled the Islamic world since 750 Seljuk Turkic Empire Turkish slaves began to take political and military power for themselves, claiming the title of sultan (Muslim) rather than kaghan (Turkic); more groups of Turkish warriors converted to Islam which caused the empire to grow Ottoman Empire major islamic state centered on Anatolia that came to include the Balkans, Middle East, and North Africa caliph successor to the Prophet al-Andalus Muslim name for Spain Byzantine Empire Christian state that entered a state of terminal decline where its religious, political, and cultural traditions influence Kievan Rus; wanted to preserve the classical Greco-Roman civilization Caesaropapism a political-religious system where the secular ruler headed the Byzantine Empire crusades a series of holy wars where Western forces seized Constantinople and ruled Byzantium for the next half century Eastern Orthodox Christianity branch of Christianity that developed in eastern Roman Empire