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Lecture 2 — Asking Questions in a Knowledge Society (SCIGEN 101/101G)

Communication in a Knowledge Society

  • Core idea: Access precedes use. If individuals cannot obtain information, they cannot decide if, when, or how to use it.
  • Implication: Knowledge societies must prioritise open pathways to data, research, and expert discussion.

How Universities Disseminate Knowledge

  • Publication-based media
    • Journal articles
    • Book chapters
    • Entire books
  • Presentation-based media
    • Conference presentations & talks
    • Academic posters
  • Mass-communication & public-facing media
    • Blogs
    • Television / Radio interviews & features
    • Public deliberation forums
  • Caveat: Science communication is not automatically clear or concise; misinterpretation and jargon remain common obstacles.

Lecture Objectives

  1. Explore inductive and deductive logic.
  2. Identify why asking questions matters in a knowledge society.
  3. Differentiate between key types of research questions.
  4. Explain the difference between open and closed questions.
  5. Explain leading (or loaded) questions and their dangers.

The Nature & Purpose of Questions

  • A question is an explicit request for information, clarification, or exploration.
  • Reasons we ask:
    • Spark curiosity and inquiry.
    • Fill knowledge gaps.
    • Test understanding or assumptions.
    • Guide decision-making and action.

Metacognition & Question Quality

  • Metacognition = “thinking about thinking” / “knowing about knowing” / “becoming aware of awareness.”
  • Applying metacognition to question-asking:
    • Reflect on why you need the information.
    • Clarify the context and assumptions behind the query.
    • Outcome: clearer, more purposeful questions.

Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up)

  • Starts with specific observations ➜ detects patterns ➜ proposes a tentative hypothesis ➜ builds toward a general theory.
  • Diagram (textual):
    • Information / Observation → Pattern → Tentative Hypothesis → Theory / Paradigm.
  • Examples
    • Generalised: “I purchased 12 apples on Saturday and ate one each day until Tuesday → 8 left. Therefore, eating four apples explains the remainder.”
    • Predictive: “Five years of attendance data show studio participation correlates with higher grades. Therefore, ‘Attending studios is associated with better academic performance.’”

Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down)

  • Begins with an established theory or general premise ➜ derives a hypothesis ➜ gathers observations ➜ seeks confirmation.
  • Diagram (textual): Theory / Paradigm → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation.
  • Logically sound examples (true premise → true conclusion):
    • “Christmas Day is always Dec 25. Today is Dec 25 → It is Christmas.”
    • “All dogs have four legs; beagles are dogs → beagles have four legs.”
  • Logically unsound examples (false premise → unreliable conclusion):
    • “All zebras have stripes; tigers have stripes → tigers are zebras.”
    • “Bus No70 travels Symonds St; this bus is on Symonds St → it is Bus No70.”

Asking Research Questions

What Makes a “Good” Question?

  • Interesting – stimulates curiosity.
  • Clearly articulated – unambiguous wording.
  • Scoped – neither too broad nor too narrow.
  • Promotes inquiry – invites exploration or investigation.

Open vs Closed Questions

  • Closed: invites limited, often binary response.
    • “Are you satisfied with your meal?”
  • Open: allows range & depth.
    • “How satisfied or dissatisfied were you with your meal?”

Leading or Loaded Questions

  • Lead respondent toward a predetermined answer.
    • Leading: “Did you have a good day?”
    • Non-leading: “How was your day?”
  • In research, avoid wording that embeds judgement or implies a correct stance.

Types of Research Questions

  1. Descriptive – quantify or characterise a phenomenon.
  2. Comparative – contrast two or more groups/conditions.
  3. Causal (Relational) – test whether one variable influences another.

Coursework Structure & Weighting

  • Two main assignments focused on one self-selected question/topic.
    1. Milestone 1 – sets research questions (worth 3\%).
    2. Research Summary (worth 15\%).
    3. Academic Poster (worth 15\%).
  • Slogan: “ONE QUESTION – TWO ASSIGNMENTS – ONE TOPIC – YOUR CHOICE.”

Assignment 1 – Choosing a Topic

  • Starter themes provided (examples):
    • Diet & Health: Food literacy, Mediterranean diets, Ultra-processed foods.
    • Environmental Impacts: Electric vehicles, AI, Microplastics & marine life.
    • Gaming: Cognitive function, Mental health, Social behaviours.
    • Mental Health & Well-being, Dating apps, Exercise, Music.

Self-reflection Prompts for Defining a Question

  • What is my topic of interest?
  • What do I already know?
  • Potential sub-questions?
  • What is the task asking me to produce?
  • Target audience & timeframe?
  • Assessment criteria?

Questioning Continuum (Bay et al., 2016)

  • Spectrum: Closed → Passive → Open → Discovery.
    • Example progression:
    • “What social media platforms are accessible to students in China?” (Closed)
    • “Compare and contrast social-media access in NZ and China.” (Passive/Comparative)
    • “How do differences in access influence Chinese students’ social-media use while studying in NZ?” (Open/Discovery)

Open vs Closed – Illustrative Pairs

  • Impact of colour on brand marketing
    • Closed: “Does colour impact brand marketing?”
    • Open: “What impact does colour have on brand marketing?”
  • Artificial sweeteners & type 2 diabetes
    • Closed: “Does consumption of artificial sweeteners impact risk?”
    • Open: “How does consumption of artificial sweeteners impact risk in adulthood?”

Broad vs Narrow – Illustrative Pairs

  • Broad: “What impact does colour have on brand marketing?”
  • Narrow: “How does using red colour influence marketing to children?”

Preparing for Studio Sessions

  • Time allocation: 1–2 hours preparation recommended.
  • Use CANVAS reading list:
    1. READ – skim abstracts; continue if interesting.
    2. TAKE NOTES – main themes, emerging questions.
    3. DISCUSS – at least one peer.
  • Suggested workflow: read 2–3 abstracts ➜ select topic ➜ find partner ➜ brainstorm questions.

Types of Academic Papers (for Studio 1)

  • Original research: Quantitative, Qualitative, Case study, Mixed methods.
  • Non-original: Debates, Commentaries, Letters, Methodologies.
  • Review articles: Systematic reviews, Meta-analyses, Narrative reviews.

Milestones & Exercises

  • Exercise 1 – Milestone 1 submission (3\%): formulate research question.
  • Exercise 2 – Research Summary draft.

Final Summary / Takeaways

  • Research questions must be carefully constructed:
    • Grounded in appropriate logic (inductive or deductive).
    • Consciously open, not leading.
    • Properly scoped.
  • Action plan:
    1. CONSIDER your interests.
    2. READ background literature.
    3. DISCUSS ideas.
    4. DEFINE a precise, inquiry-driven question that will anchor both assignments.