1450 - Gutenberg’s Printing Press
Where: Mainz, Germany
Who: Johannes Gutenberg
What it did: Introduced the movable type printing press, enabling the mass production of books, spreading ideas quickly, and fueling the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution.
1492 - Reconquista & Colonization by Columbus
Where: Spain and the Americas
Who: Ferdinand and Isabella (Reconquista); Christopher Columbus (Colonization)
What it did: The Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Spain, unifying it under Catholic rule. Columbus’s voyage led to European colonization of the Americas, marking the beginning of the global Age of Exploration.
1517 - Luther’s 95 Theses
Where: Wittenberg, Germany
Who: Martin Luther
What it did: Criticized the Catholic Church’s practices (like selling indulgences), sparking the Protestant Reformation, which led to religious, political, and cultural changes across Europe.
1555 - Peace of Augsburg
Where: Augsburg, Germany
Who: Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and German princes
What it did: Allowed German princes to choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their territories, ending some religious conflict but dividing Germany along religious lines.
1588 - Defeat of the Spanish Armada
Where: English Channel
Who: Spain’s King Philip II vs. England’s Queen Elizabeth I
What it did: England’s victory over Spain secured its naval dominance, allowing it to expand its influence and marking the decline of Spanish power.
1643–1715 - Reign of Louis XIV
Where: France
Who: King Louis XIV ("The Sun King")
What it did: Centralized power in France, built the Palace of Versailles, and strengthened France’s influence in Europe through war and diplomacy, exemplifying absolute monarchy.
1648 - The Peace of Westphalia
Where: Westphalia (Germany)
Who: European powers involved in the Thirty Years’ War
What it did: Ended the Thirty Years’ War, established the principle of state sovereignty, and laid the foundation for the modern international system.
1688 - The Glorious (Bloodless) Revolution
Where: England
Who: William of Orange and Mary vs. King James II
What it did: Overthrew King James II, established constitutional monarchy in England, and reinforced parliamentary power over the monarchy.
1763 - The Seven Years’ War Ends
Where: Global (Europe, Americas, India)
Who: Britain, France, Spain, and others
What it did: Britain emerged as the dominant global power, gaining control of India and much of North America, but it also led to colonial discontent and future revolutions.
1789 - The French Revolution
Where: France
Who: French citizens, King Louis XVI, and revolutionary leaders
What it did: Overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, and challenged the feudal system. It spread revolutionary ideas across Europe but led to years of turmoil.
1815 - Congress of Vienna
Where: Vienna, Austria
Who: European leaders after Napoleon’s defeat
What it did: Reorganized Europe’s borders, restored monarchies, and aimed to balance power to prevent future wars, ushering in a period of relative peace.
1848 - Liberal Revolutions
Where: Across Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Austria, etc.)
Who: Middle-class liberals, workers, and nationalists
What it did: Advocated for constitutional governments, national unification, and workers' rights. Most revolutions failed, but they inspired future reforms and changes.
1871 - German Unification
Where: Germany
Who: Otto von Bismarck and Prussia
What it did: Unified the German states under Prussian leadership, creating a powerful German Empire and shifting the balance of power in Europe.
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