Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY

PSY 102

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

• Defined as the scientific study of mind and behavior.

• Originates from Greek words:

  • "psyche" meaning "life"

  • "logos" meaning "explanation"

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

• Psychologists utilize empirical methods to gather and analyze data.

• Key components:

  • Scientific Method: A structured approach including assumptions, rules, and procedures for empirical research.

  • Fact vs. Value:

    • Facts are objective and supported by empirical evidence.

    • Values represent personal beliefs.

THE CHALLENGES OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY

• Individual differences: Variations among individuals in physical and psychological dimensions.

• Multi-determined behavior: Behavior is influenced by numerous factors, which can interact.

• Freudian Perspective: Emphasizes unconscious processes influencing behavior.

LEVELS OF EXPLANATION IN PSYCHOLOGY

• Three levels to understand behavior:

  • Lower: Biological influences (genes, neurons, hormones).

  • Middle: Individual characteristics and abilities.

  • Higher: Influence of social groups, organizations, and cultures.

THE MOST IMPORTANT APPROACHES (SCHOOLS) OF PSYCHOLOGY

EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS/PHILOSOPHERS

• Early influencers included Greek philosophers:

  • Plato (Nature: innate knowledge).

  • Aristotle (Nurture: knowledge from experience).

• Renaissance Philosophy:

  • René Descartes: Differentiated between mind and body (Dualism).

  • Other thinkers: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

MAJOR CHANGES TO PSYCHOLOGY

• Emergence of research-focused psychologists in the 1800s:

  • Wilhelm Wundt (Germany)

  • William James (United States)

STRUCTURALISM

• Introduced by Wilhelm Wundt, aimed to identify fundamental elements of psychological experience.

• Method: Introspection - Participants describe their experiences in mental tasks (e.g., colors, math problems).

• Mapping consciousness akin to a periodic table, but limitations noted due to subjective nature of reporting.

FUNCTIONALISM

• Developed by William James, focused on understanding the purpose of psychological traits.

• Belief: Psychological traits evolved because of their utility.

• Although distinct functionalism faded, it influenced evolutionary psychology.

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

• Incorporates Darwinian theory into the understanding of behaviors.

• Focuses on adaptive functions for survival and reproduction.

• Fitness concept: Measures traits enhancing survival and reproduction (e.g., jealousy).

• Limitations include challenges in testing predictions and lack of direct evidence for psychological evolution.

PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY

• Sigmund Freud's framework emphasizing unconscious influences on behavior.

• Analyzed patients to discern roots of issues like anxiety and depression in childhood experiences.

• Techniques include Psychoanalysis (talk therapy and dream analysis).

BEHAVIORISM

• Rejects the study of the mind; focuses on observable behaviors.

• Behavior viewed as a response to stimuli without delving into internal functions.

THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

• Emerged alongside computer analogies for the brain.

• Emphasizes study of mental processes like memory and perception.

• Contrasts behaviorism by acknowledging mental interpretations.

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

• Advances in neuroimaging have enriched understanding of brain function through visualization of mental processes and activities.

SOCIAL-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Investigates the impact of social contexts and cultural norms on behavior and thought processes.

SOME CORE INTERESTS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Attraction: Similar attitudes lead to interpersonal connections (Byrne, 1969).

• Belief Formation: Individuals form beliefs through social comparisons (Festinger, 1954).

• Conformity: Adapting beliefs and behaviors to fit social circles (Asch, 1952; Cialdini, 1993).

• Social Norms: Shared beliefs and behaviors that characterize group interactions.

NORMS AND CULTURE

• Norms: Customs, traditions, and standards that define group behavior.

• Culture: Encompasses shared values and beliefs.

• Western cultures value individualism and personal achievement, while East Asian cultures emphasize collectivism and social harmony.