Chapter 2: Culture — Comprehensive Study Notes
Overview: Chapter 2 – Culture
Learn to define culture and recall its elements; explain the significance of cultural diversity; relate mass media’s influence in shaping popular culture.
Compare and contrast theoretical explanations of culture and the media; discuss the components of cultural change.
Introduction: Everyday culture in a technologized society
Contemporary society example: young people with plugs, wires, and devices delivering music, images, and videos; devices often made of metal, plastic, silicon, etc.; many users don’t know how they’re made or work.
Behavior around devices can be highly ritualized and defining of a generation (term “screenagers”).
Streaming and related terms reflect new cultural practices; access to devices is uneven and status-related.
Outsiders may view these practices as strange, yet insiders see them as ordinary.
Cultural practices may seem strange across cultures (e.g., Chikran people painting bodies; hair as symbol of sexual power). We must study culture from both insider and outsider perspectives (cultural relativism vs ethnocentrism).
What is culture? Definition and key components
Culture is the complex system of meaning and behavior that defines the way of life for a given group or society; includes beliefs, values, knowledge, art, morals, laws, customs, habits, language, dress, etc.; includes ways of thinking and patterns of behavior.
Culture is both material and nonmaterial.
Material culture: tangible objects (buildings, art, tools, toys, literature) that carry meaning.
Nonmaterial culture: norms, laws, customs, ideas, beliefs, values.
Culture shapes beauty, aesthetics, morality, and social norms; it holds society together and guides behavior and thought.
Observing culture involves studying what people think, how they interact, and the objects they use.
The nature of culture: learned, shared, symbolic, and emergent
Culture is shared and collectively experienced; it holds society together and makes social life possible.
Culture is learned (direct teaching and indirect observation); socialization (chapter 4) is the process by which people learn culture.
Culture is taken for granted: people rarely question their own culture; outsiders may view it as strange.
Culture is symbolic: symbols carry meaning (e.g., the US flag).
Culture is emergent and varies over time and place; it adapts to physical and social environments.
The elements of culture (Core components)
Language: a system of symbols/rules enabling complex communication; learning language is essential to joining a culture. Language is fluid and evolves with social change (e.g., computing terms, texting slang).
Norms: cultural expectations for behavior in situations; include:
Folkways: general standards of behavior (dress, greetings, etc.); loosely followed.
Mores: strict norms controlling moral/ethical behavior; violations often lead to formal sanctions.
Laws: formalized mores codified into legal rules.
Sanctions: rewards or punishments enforcing norms; stronger sanctions for mores and taboos.
Taboos: strongest sanctions in a culture.
Implicit vs explicit norms: some norms are unstated yet understood; others are written/ formally communicated.
Ethnomethodology (often misspelled as iphnomethodology in the text): study of how people construct social order by violating and observing norms (e.g., Garfinkel’s experiments).
Beliefs: shared ideas about what is true; provide meaning and orientation; may derive from religion, myth, folklore, or science.
Values: abstract standards that define what is desirable or morally right; guide behavior and norms (e.g., freedom, democracy).
Symbols: objects or behaviors that carry meaning; can generate social conflict when meanings differ (e.g., national symbols, Native American mascots).
Laws: formal rules; part of the normative system that governs behavior.
Cultural practices: everyday activities and customs that express culture and can be deeply rooted in history and tradition.
Language and culture: shaping perception and power
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: language influences how people perceive reality; there is a two-way relationship: language and culture influence each other; language structures thought, but culture also shapes language usage.
Time and space examples: Hopi time vs English time illustrate how language frames social reality; weekends reflect work patterns in capitalist societies; agricultural societies organize time differently.
Language and social inequality:
How you name people conveys status and power (e.g., Native American vs American Indian; Oriental vs Asian American; terms like "boy" for Black men during Jim Crow; "girl" for women; pejorative vs reclaimed terms among marginalized groups).
Language can reproduce social inequalities; changing language can alter stereotypes and attitudes.
Language and identity:
Naming conventions reflect power relations and cultural identities; debates over terms (Native American, American Indian, etc.).
Language can be used to assert positive group identity (e.g., reclaiming terms like queer among LGBTQ communities).
Language and norms:
Language both reflects and reinforces cultural norms and power dynamics; media and political contexts influence language use.
Language in multicultural societies:
Multilingualism and bilingual education: bilingualism can improve cognitive outcomes and labor market needs; bilingual education is not a barrier to assimilation.
Culture as a social product: norms, beliefs, values in action
Beliefs: shared ideas about reality shape norms and values.
Values: abstract standards guiding behavior; can unify or clash across groups (e.g., reciprocity in potlatch vs conspicuous consumption in the U.S.).
Norms and sanctions: sanctions enforce norms; can be positive (praise, rewards) or negative (ridicule, imprisonment).
Ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism:
Ethnocentrism: judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own; can lead to conflict and misunderstanding.
Cultural relativism: understanding another culture on its own terms; helps explain controversial practices (e.g., Tibet’s sky burial, clitoridectomy debates).
Cultural space and symbols:
Symbols carry meaning beyond their physical form (e.g., flags, mascots) and can generate conflict when meanings diverge.
Beliefs and values in context:
Values can foster social cohesion or generate conflict; e.g., potlatch values vs modern consumption patterns.
Culture and diversity in the United States
The U.S. is culturally diverse and dynamic; immigrant and minority cultures contribute to mainstream culture.
Diversity metrics (from Pew/US Census):
Foreign-born population: 12.9\% of people in the U.S.; current immigrants come largely from Latin America and Asia; some regions have higher concentrations of non-English language speakers.
About 37\% of the population is a racial/ethnic minority; this is projected to rise to 57\% by 2060.
Language at home: about 20\% speak a language other than English at home; among them, about 44\% are not immigrants, reflecting second/third generation multilingual households.
The concept of a dominant culture: the culture of the most powerful group; influenced by mass media; can coexist with subcultures and countercultures.
Subcultures and countercultures:
Subcultures: groups with distinct norms within the dominant culture (e.g., Amish; Puerto Rican communities; rap/hip-hop as a subculture that has become mainstream).
Countercultures: challenge dominant culture (e.g., white supremacist groups); can become underground under repression.
Global diffusion and the rise of a global culture:
Western/global capitalism diffusion leads to a more homogeneous global culture; tension between traditional values and market-driven values.
Globalization intersects with local cultures, creating hybrid forms and conflicts.
Cultural change and adaptation:
Immigration and diffusion introduce new cultural elements; innovations (in technology, media) transform daily life (e.g., streaming, social media).
Culture lag: aspects of culture change at different rates; technology can outpace social norms and institutions.
Cultural diffusion enriches dominant cultures but can threaten minority cultures if not managed.
The mass media and popular culture: power, influence, and representation
The mass media are powerful and concentrated in a few large corporations (media monopolies); cultural power is concentrated (cultural hegemony) where elites shape norms and values with broad consent.
Market-driven content: advertisers also are a major customer; content targets broad audiences; superficial content may result from consolidation.
Hegemony and resistance: mass media help normalize the status quo, but also can be sites of resistance and cultural change.
Time and consumption:
Television is pervasive in many households; about 42\% are “constant television households,” with TV on most of the time.
The average person spends about 11 hours per day on media, totaling roughly 77 hours per week.
Ethnic/racial groups show different media use patterns; e.g., Black and Latino audiences spend more time with TV.
New media and digital life:
The rise of the Internet and social media: nearly all adults with internet access use social media; by the late 2010s, about two-thirds of cell phone owners check for messages constantly; ext{young adults (18–29)} show the highest usage.
Facebook usage worldwide approaches billions of users (almost 2\times 10^9 people).
The “two days without the media” exercise (Charles Gallagher):
Log media use for 48 hours; cut media, observe effects on conversation and social interaction; reflect on how media shapes self-concept and social life.
Different theoretical lenses (functionalism, conflict theory, feminist theory, symbolic interaction) offer varied explanations for outcomes of a blackout.
Media representations and stereotypes:
Content analyses show systematic portrayals by race, gender, and class; e.g., women often portrayed with youth, beauty, and domestic roles; people of color underrepresented or stereotyped; LGBTQ representations have increased but can remain narrow.
Specific examples: Twilight’s female stereotypes vs Hunger Games’ empowered female lead; Native Americans often depicted as mystics or warriors; Latinos repeatedly stereotyped as criminals or laborers; Asian Americans underrepresented or shown in limited roles.
Music and film influence on attitudes:
Studies link exposure to gendered/sexualized media to attitudes about sexuality and consent; media images influence perceived norms even when viewers recognize them as fictional.
Content analysis and theoretical frameworks used to study culture and media:
Functionalism: culture’s norms/values integrate people and provide social cohesion; media contribute to shared values and social bonds.
Conflict theory: media reflect and reproduce the interests of powerful groups; cultural products advance the status quo and economic monopolies; cultural capital reproduces inequality (Bourdieu).
Symbolic interactionism: culture is socially constructed through everyday interactions; individuals interpret and respond to cultural artifacts.
New cultural studies: emphasize material culture, media images, postmodern fragmentation, and the role of images in shaping reality.
Feminist theory: critiques patriarchy in cultural institutions and media; highlights gender stereotypes; advocates for more gender-inclusive and empowering representations.
Reflection and critique:
The reflection hypothesis contends media reflect public values but also shape attitudes; evidence shows media can influence attitudes (e.g., hip-hop videos influencing gender attitudes).
The media’s content shapes consumer culture and everyday life; media literacy is essential for understanding bias and representation.
Ethical and political implications: when media shapes public policy or political views, this raises questions about media responsibility and diversity of voices.
Theoretical summaries: culture and the media across major frameworks
Functionalism
Culture provides coherence and social bonds; norms/values sustain society.
Media contribute to social integration via shared symbols and rituals (e.g., national events, celebrity funerals as collective rites).
Conflict theory
Culture and media serve elite interests; monopolies concentrate cultural power; cultural capital reproduces inequality; media can push political resistance but often suppresses it.
Symbolic interactionism
Culture is actively created and negotiated; individuals interpret media messages; daily interactions reproduce and transform cultural meanings.
New Cultural Studies
Emphasizes material culture and the political economy of media; analyzes how images, texts, and practices produce multiple readings and identities.
Feminist theory
Analyzes gendered representations and power dynamics in media; critiques sexualization of women; highlights underrepresentation of women in leadership and decision-making in cultural industries.
Dynamics of cultural change
Sources of cultural change:
Change in societal conditions (economic, demographic, political shifts).
Cultural diffusion: transmission of culture between societies; subcultures influencing dominant culture; globalization accelerating diffusion.
Innovation: technological breakthroughs (e.g., streaming, social media) that redefine everyday life and cultural forms.
Imposition by outside groups: domination or revolutions that replace or reshape cultural patterns.
Cultural lag
Some cultural elements lag behind technological advances; slow adaptation to new tech (e.g., transportation habits despite cleaner technologies).
Culture shock
Disorientation experienced when moving to a different cultural environment; greater with larger differences between cultures.
Globalization and global culture
Western/capitalist cultural forms increasingly influence global tastes; concerns about eroding local traditions; tensions between traditional values and market-driven values.
Cultural diffusion and dominance
Diffusion allows dominant cultures to influence local practices (food, language, media, fashion).
Resistance and reclaiming identity occur through cultural movements and political activism (e.g., indigenous repatriation efforts, La Raza Unida).
Practical implications and ethical considerations
Understanding ethnocentrism and cultural relativism helps prevent biased judgments and promotes intercultural understanding.
Recognizing the mass media’s power encourages critical media literacy and awareness of representation, stereotypes, and political economy.
Appreciating cultural diversity informs inclusive policies, education, and social cohesion.
Awareness of culture change dynamics helps anticipate societal shifts and address resistance to change.
Key terms and concepts (glossary-style quick-reference)
Dominant culture: culture of the most powerful group in a society; may not be the majority but defines the cultural framework.
Subculture: a group whose values/norms differ from the dominant culture but coexist within it.
Counterculture: a subculture that directly challenges the dominant culture’s values.
Cultural diffusion: transmission of cultural elements between societies or groups.
Global culture: increasingly homogeneous set of cultural practices promoted by Western capitalist markets.
Cultural hegemony: pervasive influence of one culture throughout society; shapes norms and political consensus.
Cultural capital: resources (knowledge/behavior) that confer social advantage to those who possess them (Bourdieu).
Culture lag: some parts of culture change more slowly than others in response to new conditions or technologies.
Ethnocentrism: viewing others’ cultures from the standpoint of one’s own; often leads to prejudice and misunderstanding.
Cultural relativism: evaluating a culture based on its own standards rather than by external norms.
Cultural pluralism: coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society.
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: language influences thought and perception; two-way or bidirectional influence between language and culture.
Norms, folkways, mores: expectations for behavior; sanctions enforce norms; folkways are common norms, mores are strong, often tied to legal/ethical codes.
Beliefs, values, symbols: core components forming the meaning system of a culture.
Mass media: channels of communication that reach large audiences; concentrations of ownership influence content and culture.
Popular culture: everyday beliefs, practices, and objects that are widely consumed.
Ethnography and ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel, 1967): studying the observable ways people create social order, often by testing norms.
Potlatch: Indigenous Quakeyoodle (Quake-doodle) practice of giving away goods; illustrates values of reciprocity and social status.
Quick prompts for study and reflection
How do the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis and the example of weekend/time concepts illustrate language’s influence on culture?
Identify a norm you follow that might be explicit in one culture but implicit in another. What sanctions exist for violating it?
Compare the depiction of gender and race in Twilight vs Hunger Games in terms of feminist and media studies perspectives.
How does cultural diffusion manifest in your own city’s food, language, or music scenes? What tensions arise?
Reflect on a 48-hour media blackout: what changed in your interaction, mood, and awareness of culture’s pervasiveness?
Consider a local subculture on your campus or in your community. How does it relate to the dominant culture, and in what ways might it resist or negotiate power through cultural practices?
Connections to broader themes
Culture informs and is informed by social structure, power, and economic systems.
The mass media both reflects and shapes cultural values, with implications for social inequality and political power.
Cultural change is ongoing and multi-causal: immigration, diffusion, innovation, and external imposition all play roles.
Understanding culture requires balancing appreciation for difference with critical analysis of power and representation.
Summary (condensed to core ideas)
Culture is a shared, learned, symbolic system of meaning and behavior that defines a group’s life, including material and nonmaterial aspects.
The elements of culture include language, norms (folkways/mores/laws), beliefs, values, symbols, and laws; culture is learned via socialization and is taken for granted.
Language both shapes and reflects culture; it can encode power relations and influence thought (Sapir–Whorf) and is central to group identity.
Norms guide behavior; sanctions enforce norms; culture is learned and transmitted across generations; ethnocentrism and cultural relativism shape cross-cultural understanding.
Culture adapts and changes through immigration/diffusion/innovation and external imposition; culture lag can occur when changes happen at different rates.
Globalization and mass media contribute to global culture, but also raise concerns about cultural hegemony and loss of diversity.
The mass media influence attitudes and identities through representation; theories (functionalism, conflict, symbolic interaction, feminist theory, cultural studies) offer complementary explanations for media’s role.
Practical experiments (e.g., media blackout, content analysis) reveal how culture is produced, reproduced, and contested in everyday life.