Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes

Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes

Changing Land Cover Over Time

• Historical perspective highlights the significant alteration of land cover, noting that the world has lost a third of its forest since the last ice age.

• Graphic Representation:

  • 29% Land: 14.9 billion hectares

  • 71% Ocean: 36.1 billion hectares

  • Breakdown of Land Use:

  • 71% Habitable Land: 10.6 billion hectares

  • 19% Barren Land: 2.8 billion hectares, including deserts, salt flats, exposed rocks.

  • 10% Glaciers: 1.4 billion hectares, primarily Antarctica.

Historical Changes in Forest Area

• 10,000 years ago: 57% forest coverage (6 billion hectares).

• 5,000 years ago: 55% forest coverage (5.8 billion hectares).

• 1700: 52% forest coverage (5.5 billion hectares).

• 1800: 50% forest coverage (5.3 billion hectares).

• 1900: 42% forest coverage (4.6 billion hectares).

• 1950: 44% forest coverage (4.7 billion hectares).

• 2000: 38% forest coverage (4.1 billion hectares).

• 2018: 38% forest coverage remains constant at 4 billion hectares while agricultural land usage shifts.

• Notable Statistics:

  • One billion hectares equals size of the USA.

  • Half of forest loss occurred by 1900, with agricultural expansion replacing forests and grasslands.

Agricultural Land Usage

• Almost half of the world's habitable land is dedicated to agriculture:

  • 77% for livestock (including both grazing and crops for livestock feed).

  • 23% for crops aimed at human consumption.

  • Urban and built-up land form a mere 1%.

Deforestation Patterns

Geographic Focus

• Areas with significant deforestation since 1950 include:

  • Africa

  • Southeast Asia

  • South America

• Notable Cases:

  • Indonesia leads in tropical deforestation, primarily for palm oil production.

  • Brazil under scrutiny for deforestation related to cattle ranching and soybean production.

Increases in Forest Cover

• Countries like Costa Rica and the U.S. have seen natural regrowth.

• Tree plantations replace biologically diverse forests with simplified versions.

• China’s initiatives to incentivize individuals to cease logging and engage in reforestation have notably reduced its deforestation rates and flooding issues.

Costa Rica: Ecosystem Payments

• The first country in Latin America to secure funding from World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (REDD+).

• Forest coverage increased from 40% in 1987 to 60% currently.

• Implementation of a benefit-sharing program aimed at compensating local communities.

Forest Transition Theory

• Theory posits that initial population growth and economic development lead to deforestation, but forests can recover following migrations and economic shifts.

• Graphical representation typically yields a U-shaped curve reflecting forest cover over time.

Evidence for Forest Transition Theory

• European forests show historical decline followed by regrowth, providing substantial evidence for the theory.

Regulations for Reducing Deforestation

• Certifications from third-parties include:

  • Forest Stewardship Council

  • Rainforest Alliance Sustainability

Aldo Leopold and Ecological Ethics

Background

• Aldo Leopold (1887-1948): Professor, Writer, and pioneer of restoration ecology.

• Notable Publication: "A Sand County Almanac" includes essays advocating for conservation.

Ecocentric Worldview

• Leopold embodies an ecocentric perspective prioritizing ecological integrity before human interests.

• His land ethic emphasizes the promotion of healthy ecosystem functioning as ethically “right.”

• He encourages expanding moral community to encompass all living elements, stating, "…enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants and animals…"

Moral Extensionism

• Proposes extending moral consideration beyond humanity, advocating for recognizing humans as integral members of the ecological community.

• Challenges conventional views of human superiority over nature.

Discussion on the Land Ethic

• Questions posed about feasibility and barriers to adopting Leopold's land ethic in contemporary society.

Forest Governance in the U.S.

Historical Context

• By mid-1800s, timber harvesting was a substantial industry, requiring no compensation for harvested timber.

• Unsustainable practices became evident by the 1870s, leading to ecological degradation, such as significant reduction in average log sizes and ecosystem health.

Legal Framework

• Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized the president to protect specific forested areas.

• Establishment of the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) in 1905, with a focus on conservation but still allowing extensive logging.

• The Great Fire of 1910 critically supported the continuation of the Forest Service.

• By the 1960s and 1970s, increasing public demand for sustainable practices led to the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960.

National Park Service Overview

Current Scope

• Manages 85 million acres, primarily located in Alaska (60%).

• Established Yellowstone as the first national park (1872), followed by outdoor preservation initiatives in Australia and New Zealand.

• Formed in 1916 with an organic act establishing its dual mandate: conservation of natural resources and public enjoyment.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

Mandate and Scope

• Manages approximately 250 million acres, emphasizing multi-use and resource extraction balancing.

• Main activities include timber management, mineral leasing, energy production (coal, oil), and recreational activities.

Land Use Management

• BLM aims to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of public lands for future generations, while managing various public resources.

US Forest Service Overview

Current and Historical Context

• USFS oversees 154 national forests covering 193 million acres and 20 national grasslands.

• Engaged in balancing different land uses and responding to stakeholders through the National Forest Management Act (1976).

US Fish & Wildlife Service

Function and Jurisdiction

• Administers 560 national wildlife refuges encompassing 150 million acres.

• Focuses on the conservation and protection of fish, wildlife, and plants while enforcing the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

Co-Management and Indigenous Rights

Historical Displacement

• Recognition of displacement of indigenous populations due to the establishment of protected areas.

• Recent trends show more governments adopting co-management systems, such as the Bears Ears National Monument, integrated with tribal governance.

Management of Local Lands

Local Initiatives

• Local governments, like Division of Lands and Forests in New York, manage conservation easements and recreation rights actively at a regional scale.

Fire Management in Forests

Role of Fire

• Natural fire events play a crucial role in landscape modification and ecosystem health.

• Prescribed burning practices help manage flammable materials and strengthen ecosystem resilience.

Changing Perspectives

• Shift in public opinion and management policies over the last century concerning wildfires, exemplified by the USFS mascot Smokey Bear.

Ethical Considerations: Rights of Nature

Legal Framework in Ecuador

• Ecuador's 2007-2008 constitutional amendments recognize rights for nature, asserting ecosystems possess rights to exist and regenerate, and allowing for legal representation on their behalf.

Implementation and Global Trends

• As of 2022, 24 countries have recognized nature's rights, with several U.S. cities initiating similar adaptations, such as Lake Erie granted personhood in 2019.