Adolescent Development week 11

By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

• Explain how media functions as a socialising agent in adolescence and discuss the key psychological theories used to understand media influence.

• Evaluate the impact of music and lyrics on adolescent identity development, emotional regulation, and self-expression.

• Analyse how television content shapes adolescent perceptions of identity, body image, and interpersonal relationships.

• Discuss the cognitive and social benefits of video games during adolescence, as well as the risks associated with excessive or maladaptive gameplay.

• Critically assess the role of social media and influencers in shaping adolescent wellbeing, peer relationships, and health-related behaviours.

11.1 | Theories of Media Influence

Technology and Media in Adolescent Lives

Technology and media are now central to adolescent development. This generation of young people—often referred to as digital natives—is growing up in an environment saturated with:

• Smartphones

• Social media platforms

• Streaming services

• Constant internet access

Adolescents use media for a wide range of purposes, including entertainment, education, social connection, and identity exploration. Research shows they spend a significant portion of their day engaging with digital media, often multitasking across platforms (Rideout & Robb, 2019).

Given this continuous exposure, media functions as a major socialising force, shaping values, attitudes, behaviours, and worldviews. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable to media influence due to their stage of development—marked by identity exploration, emotional reactivity, and increasing independence (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). 

Media Use: Opportunities and Risks

Media presents both benefits and challenges:

• Opportunities include:

  • Access to diverse information

  • Creative expression

  • Social connection with peers

• Concerns include:

  • Exposure to harmful or unrealistic content

  • Social comparison and low self-esteem

  • Reduced face-to-face interaction

Understanding the mechanisms by which media influences adolescent development is key to supporting young people in a media-saturated world.

Cultivation Theory

Cultivation Theory (Gerbner et al., 2002) suggests that long-term exposure to media content can shape individuals' perceptions of reality. Originally developed to examine television, the theory has since been applied to digital and social media contexts.

Key points:

• Heavy media users may internalise the recurring themes and values portrayed in media, which can distort their view of the real world

• For adolescents, repeated exposure to media content may influence beliefs about:

  • Romantic relationships

  • Gender roles

  • Violence

  • Body image

For example:

• Viewing idealised portrayals of love may create unrealistic expectations about intimacy

• Exposure to narrow beauty ideals can fuel body dissatisfaction and poor self-esteem (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008)

Cultivation effects are often subtle and cumulative, shaping attitudes and social norms over time.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory, developed by Albert Bandura, highlights how people learn through observation and imitation—especially when behaviours appear to be rewarded.

In media contexts:

• Adolescents observe behaviours modeled by:

  • Celebrities

  • Influencers

  • Fictional characters

• These figures often serve as attractive or relatable role models

• Young people are more likely to imitate behaviours that are:

  • Rewarded or admired

  • Aligned with their personal goals or identities

Examples include imitating:

• Aggressive or risk-taking behaviours

• Appearance-focused or gender-stereotyped roles

• Prosocial behaviours like activism or kindness

Importantly, today's media is interactive. Adolescents not only consume media—they create and share content, reinforcing behaviours through feedback mechanisms like likes, comments, and shares (Nesi, 2020). This can amplify the learning effect.

Uses and Gratifications Approach

Unlike other theories that focus on media's effects, the Uses and Gratifications Approach focuses on why adolescents choose to engage with media. It views them as active users who select media to fulfil specific needs or goals (Katz et al., 1973).

Common gratifications sought by adolescents:

• Entertainment and escapism

• Information and education

• Identity exploration

• Social connection

• Emotional regulation (e.g., coping with stress or boredom)

This theory recognises that media use can be both empowering and problematic:

• Positive when it fosters connection or self-understanding

• Potentially harmful when it leads to dependency, anxiety, or diminished wellbeing, particularly if media is used to avoid real-life problems (Valkenburg et al., 2013)

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Digital natives refers to the generation of adolescents who have grown up with constant access to digital technologies like smartphones, social media, and the internet.

• Media as a socialising agent highlights the role of digital content in shaping adolescents’ values, behaviours, and worldviews through daily exposure.

• Identity development in adolescence is especially vulnerable to media influence due to increased autonomy, emotional sensitivity, and the search for self.

• Cultivation Theory proposes that long-term media exposure can shape an individual’s perceptions of reality to align with recurring media themes.

• Media portrayals of relationships, gender roles, and body image can influence adolescent beliefs and lead to unrealistic expectations or dissatisfaction.

• Social Learning Theory emphasises that adolescents learn behaviours by observing and imitating media figures who appear attractive, successful, or relatable.

• Media modelling occurs when adolescents replicate behaviours seen in media, particularly those perceived to be rewarded or socially valued.

• User-generated content and feedback mechanisms on platforms like TikTok and Instagram reinforce behaviours through likes, comments, and shares.

• Uses and Gratifications approach suggests adolescents actively choose media to fulfil needs like entertainment, identity exploration, and social connection.

• Media consequences can be both positive and negative, with outcomes depending on the motivations for use and the nature of media engagement.

11.2 | Music

Music in Adolescent Life

Music plays a central role in the lives of adolescents. Many young people spend several hours each day listening to music, accumulating thousands of hours by the time they reach adulthood. This engagement occurs during a critical developmental period, when adolescents are forming identities, experiencing emotional growth, and renegotiating relationships with family and peers. Given their heightened sensitivity to external input, music becomes a powerful emotional and social influence.

Music and Identity Development

Music offers adolescents a way to explore and express who they are, what they value, and who they hope to become. As they seek autonomy and a stable sense of self, music serves as a cultural tool for identity experimentation (Arnett, 1995).

• Adolescents align themselves with specific genres, artists, or lyrics that resonate with their emotional states, social affiliations, and aspirations.

• Lyrics addressing themes like heartbreak, empowerment, or injustice can help adolescents articulate their identities and feel understood.

• Repeated listening, emotional resonance, and parasocial connections (e.g., one-sided emotional bonds with artists) deepen music’s personal significance.

Musicians serve as identity role models, shaping adolescents’ values and self-concept:

• According to Hammond et al. (2024), figures like Taylor Swift are admired not only for talent but also for traits like authenticity, kindness, and resilience.

• Adolescents view such celebrities as moral exemplars—what Hammond et al. term Famous Character Role Models.

• Others may gravitate to punk or metal artists who offer raw emotion, social defiance, or messages of mental health advocacy—important for youth who feel marginalised or outside of mainstream ideals.

Through identification with musical figures and lyrical narratives, adolescents engage in self-socialisation that contributes to:

• Identity formation

• Moral reasoning

• Values clarification

Music and Emotional Development and Regulation

Music also plays a vital role in emotional development by acting both as a mirror of feelings and a tool for regulation. Adolescents often turn to music that reflects their emotional state, which can help them feel understood during a time of emotional turbulence.

• Music offers external validation of complex emotions (e.g., loneliness, heartbreak, anxiety), often before adolescents have the words to describe these experiences.

• Emotional “mirroring” in music supports self-reflection and the development of emotional literacy (Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2007).

Beyond emotional expression, music aids in emotion regulation:

• According to Gross’s (2015) process model, adolescents use music in:

  • Antecedent-focused ways – e.g., energising songs before a performance

  • Response-focused ways – e.g., calming music to reduce anxiety

• Adolescents use music to:

  • Cope with stress

  • Boost mood

  • Distract from or engage with distressing feelings (Saarikallio, 2011)

However, effects vary by intentionality and emotional state:

• Constructive use of music (e.g., for reflection or catharsis) supports resilience and growth.

• Maladaptive use (e.g., using music to ruminate or suppress emotions) is linked to depression and poorer wellbeing (Miranda & Claes, 2009).

Neurobiological Evidence of Music’s Impact

Fasano et al. (2023) conducted a neuroimaging (fMRI) study on early adolescents (ages 10–11) to examine how music affects the brain. Findings included:

• Music activates the brain’s reward network, including the orbitofrontal cortex, more than silence does.

• Adolescents who reported enjoying music more showed neural patterns associated with emotional anticipation, suggesting that music primes emotional responses.

• These results support the idea that music is a powerful tool for emotional influence and regulation in early adolescence.

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Music engagement is a prominent feature of adolescent life, with young people often listening to music for several hours a day during a period of intense developmental change.

• Music and identity development refers to the role of music in helping adolescents explore and express who they are, what they value, and how they relate to the world around them.

• Genre and lyrical alignment allow adolescents to affiliate with music that mirrors their emotional experiences and social identities, reinforcing self-concept and personal values.

• Parasocial relationships with musicians offer adolescents role models who influence their values, aspirations, and moral development, particularly in the absence of real-life mentors.

• Music and emotional development describes how adolescents use music to process, understand, and express complex emotional states during a time of heightened emotional sensitivity.

• Emotion regulation through music involves adolescents selecting music to influence their mood or cope with stress, such as using calming songs to reduce anxiety or energising music to boost motivation.

• Constructive vs maladaptive coping refers to how music can either support emotional resilience or contribute to issues like rumination, depending on how it is used.

• Neurobiological effects of music include activation of the brain’s reward system, especially in early adolescence, reinforcing music's emotional and motivational power.

• Famous character role models are public figures like musicians who adolescents admire for traits such as authenticity, perseverance, or emotional openness, shaping their moral and identity development.

• Symbolic narratives in lyrics help adolescents make sense of their personal experiences, with repeated listening strengthening the emotional and developmental significance of particular songs.

11.3 | Film & Television

The Role of Television in Adolescent Development

Television—encompassing both traditional TV shows and movies—continues to play a significant role in shaping adolescent development. Young people engage with screen media not only for entertainment, but also to make sense of themselves and their social world. Characters and storylines become tools for identity exploration, social learning, and emotional connection.

The influence of television has grown dramatically with the rise of streaming platforms like Netflix, Disney+, and YouTube. These services offer:

• On-demand, personalised viewing experiences, allowing adolescents to choose content freely and watch it in private.

• Frequent and often immersive screen engagement, which makes media more difficult for caregivers to monitor or regulate.

This shift has intensified the developmental impact of screen media, as adolescents now engage with content more frequently, independently, and intimately than ever before.

Identity Formation

Television plays a key role in helping adolescents explore and define their identities. As they move toward greater independence and self-reflection, adolescents often look to media characters to model potential selves.

• Characters who are relatable, aspirational, or culturally similar can support identity development and provide emotional validation.

• Through parasocial interactions—imagined relationships with on-screen figures—adolescents form emotional attachments that influence their values, goals, and self-concept (Steele & Brown, 1995).

When adolescents see diverse and authentic portrayals of gender, ethnicity, or sexuality, it can:

• Promote self-acceptance

• Broaden their understanding of what is possible or acceptable

However, limited diversity or stereotyped portrayals may constrain identity development by sending narrow or exclusionary messages about whose stories matter.

Relationships

Television shapes how adolescents perceive and interpret romantic and social relationships.

• Romantic plots often idealise passion, conflict, or drama, potentially distorting expectations about love, dating, or friendship.

• Peer interactions in shows can set norms around communication styles, gender roles, and emotional expression.

Because TV content is often discussed with friends, it becomes a shared framework for understanding real-life relationships. These portrayals can influence:

• How adolescents handle conflict

• What they expect from intimacy

• How they interpret social cues

Body Image

Television also significantly impacts body image. Adolescents are frequently exposed to idealised body types, especially in shows that glamorise thinness, muscularity, or physical attractiveness.

• Regular exposure to these ideals is linked to lower self-esteem, increased body dissatisfaction, and pressure to meet unrealistic standards (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016).

• These effects are stronger for adolescents who compare themselves to celebrities or idealised characters, particularly in appearance-focused genres.

Academic Development

Finally, television influences academic development, particularly through its effects on time use and cognitive engagement.

• Excessive screen time can displace key activities like:

  • Studying

  • Reading

  • Sleeping

• Passive or unstructured viewing—especially before bed—has been linked to:

  • Lower academic motivation

  • Reduced performance

  • Sleep disruption (Domoff et al., 2019)

However, not all screen time is harmful. Educational or cognitively stimulating content, when consumed in moderation, can support learning—especially when viewing is structured and intentional.

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Television and adolescent development refers to the role of screen media in shaping how adolescents understand themselves, others, and the world around them through exposure to characters, narratives, and social themes.

• Streaming platforms have transformed media consumption by offering personalised, on-demand access to content, increasing the frequency, individualisation, and privacy of adolescent media use.

• Identity formation is supported or constrained by television content, as adolescents engage in parasocial interactions with characters that influence their values, aspirations, and self-concept.

• Parasocial interactions describe the imagined relationships adolescents form with media figures, which can impact their emotional development and sense of belonging.

• Relationship expectations are shaped by media portrayals of romance and friendship, which may reinforce unrealistic norms around passion, gender roles, and emotional expression.

• Body image concerns can arise from repeated exposure to idealised physiques in film and television, leading to dissatisfaction and internalised beauty standards among adolescents.

• Academic development may be negatively impacted by excessive screen time, which can reduce time for sleep, study, and cognitive engagement, depending on the type and timing of media use.

11.4 | Video Games

The Role of Video Games in Adolescent Development

Video games are now a central part of many adolescents’ daily lives. No longer confined to consoles or desktops, they are widely available via smartphones, tablets, and portable devices (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). This increased accessibility has not only expanded how often adolescents play, but also diversified the types of games they engage with—ranging from puzzle games and RPGs to sports, rhythm-based, and social simulations.

As a result, video games can now serve multiple developmental functions, including:

• Cognitive stimulation

• Emotional expression

• Social interaction and skill-building

Video Games & Cognition

Video games, particularly those requiring sustained mental engagement, have been associated with improvements in:

• Visual-spatial skills

• Attention control

• Executive functioning (e.g., working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control)

Strategy, puzzle, and role-playing games challenge players to:

• Monitor multiple streams of information

• Shift between competing rules

• Solve complex, time-pressured problems

These cognitive demands mirror tasks used to train executive functioning in psychological research.

A major neuroimaging study by Chaarani et al. (2022) found that adolescents who played video games for 3+ hours daily showed:

• Better performance on tasks related to impulse control and working memory

• Increased brain activity in regions linked to attention and processing

This suggests that, under the right conditions, regular gameplay may support neuroplasticity—the brain’s capacity to adapt and reorganise—during adolescence.

Video Games & Social Behaviours

Online multiplayer and cooperative games foster social skill development by encouraging:

• Teamwork

• Communication

• Perspective-taking and empathy

Adolescents who play with peers often report:

• Greater social connectedness

• Enhanced sense of inclusion—especially valuable for those with difficulty in offline interactions (Granic et al., 2014)

Games with social features (e.g., chat, rankings, group quests) promote:

• Interpersonal negotiation

• Conflict resolution

• Identity exploration in a peer-validated space (Kowert & Quandt, 2016)

In this way, video games can function as important social arenas, especially when real-world social support is limited.

Excessive Video Game Play

While gaming offers many potential benefits, outcomes depend on:

• Intensity of use

• Underlying motivations (e.g., escapism vs enjoyment)

• Balance with offline responsibilities

Excessive or compulsive gaming has been linked to:

• Reduced academic performance

• Disrupted sleep and daytime fatigue

• Lower physical activity

• Social withdrawal and family conflict (Gentile et al., 2011)

However, not all high-frequency gamers experience these issues. Problems are more likely when gaming becomes a coping mechanism for:

• Stress

• Loneliness

• Emotional regulation difficulties

In such cases, excessive gaming may be a symptom, not a cause, of developmental challenges.

Supportive strategies include:

• Encouraging a balance between gaming and other activities

• Promoting parental involvement and open conversations about media habits

• Teaching skills in time management, emotional regulation, and digital literacy

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Video game accessibility has increased due to widespread availability on smartphones, tablets, and portable devices, making gaming a routine part of adolescent life.

• Types of video games include puzzle games, social simulations, role-playing games, sports, and rhythm-based formats, each offering different developmental benefits.

• Cognitive benefits of video games include improvements in attention, visual-spatial abilities, and executive functions like working memory and cognitive flexibility, especially from mentally demanding games.

• Neuroplasticity and gameplay are linked, with neuroimaging studies showing that regular gaming is associated with better impulse control and heightened brain activity in attention-related areas.

• Social development can be supported through cooperative and multiplayer games, which promote communication, teamwork, and prosocial behaviours such as empathy and perspective-taking.

• Interpersonal skills may be developed in online gaming environments that require negotiation, rule-setting, and peer collaboration, helping adolescents navigate social relationships.

• Excessive gaming can lead to negative outcomes like poor sleep, lower academic performance, and reduced physical activity, particularly when used as an escape from emotional or social stressors.

• Healthy gaming habits can be supported by balancing playtime with other activities, fostering emotional awareness, involving parents, and teaching self-regulation and digital literacy.

11.5 | Social Media & Influencers

Social Media in Adolescent Life

Social media has become a pervasive and transformative force in adolescent development, shaping how young people:

• Interact with peers

• Express themselves

• Form and explore identities

Platforms like Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok provide avenues for connection, creativity, and community—especially for those who may feel marginalised offline (Uhls et al., 2017). However, constant connectivity can displace important activities such as sleep, physical activity, and in-person social interaction (Twenge & Campbell, 2018).

Social Media & Relationships

Social media now serves as a primary space for adolescents to build and maintain relationships, both friendships and romantic ones. Its key affordances—immediacy, visibility, and persistence—shape peer dynamics in developmentally significant ways.

• Adolescents use features like stories, streaks, and comments to maintain intimacy and signal inclusion.

• These interactions help meet psychosocial needs for connection, validation, and belonging (Katz et al., 1973).

However, the same features can cause stress:

• Being left on "read"

• Exclusion from group chats

• Visibility of followers, likes, or posts

These pressures can fuel anxiety, jealousy, or social comparison and complicate social navigation.

Romantic Relationships

Adolescents also use social media to:

• Flirt and express affection (e.g., likes, emojis, tagging)

• Manage relationship dynamics

• Cope with breakups or jealousy

Attachment theory provides insight:

• Securely attached adolescents use social media to stay close and set boundaries.

• Anxious or avoidant adolescents may over-monitor or withdraw, amplifying distress (Morey et al., 2013).

The public nature of digital affection or conflict can intensify emotional reactions, requiring maturity and self-regulation.

Social Media & Mental Health

Social media shapes adolescent mental health primarily through social comparison. Curated, idealised images and content can lead to:

• Body dissatisfaction

• Lower self-esteem

• Unrealistic expectations (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2016)

Key findings:

• Most adolescents use social media without serious harm.

• Some are more vulnerable—particularly those with pre-existing issues like low self-esteem, depression, or anxiety.

Differential Susceptibility

Media effects vary by:

• Individual traits (e.g., emotional sensitivity)

• Type of use (active vs passive)

• Context of use (supportive vs toxic environments)

Passive scrolling and upward comparison are more harmful than active, reciprocal use that fosters support (Frison & Eggermont, 2016).

Positive Potential

Social media can:

• Enhance belonging

• Improve mood

• Provide emotional support—especially in inclusive online spaces

Ultimately, social media is not inherently good or bad—it reflects and amplifies the adolescent’s social and emotional context (Valkenburg et al., 2022).

Social Media Influencers & Health

A growing area of concern—and opportunity—is the influence of social media influencers (SMIs) on adolescent health.

A scoping review by Engel et al. (2024) identified three mechanisms through which influencers shape adolescent health:

1. Health information transmission – sharing tips on diet, fitness, or mental health

2. Behavioural modelling – showcasing routines, habits, and values

3. Parasocial relationships – forming emotional bonds with influencers, enhancing their credibility and impact

While some influencers promote positive behaviours and inclusion, others may:

• Reinforce harmful beauty ideals

• Normalise unhealthy behaviours like vaping or disordered eating

These effects are intensified by:

• Visual content and aspirational aesthetics

• The trust adolescents place in influencers due to perceived relatability

Engel et al. also highlight that much of the research is cross-sectional and Western-centric, calling for more diverse, longitudinal studies to understand long-term impacts.

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Social media is a central part of adolescent life, shaping identity, self-expression, and social connection through platforms that offer both opportunities and risks.

• Peer relationships are frequently formed and maintained on social media, where features like private stories and comment threads support intimacy but also introduce relational stressors.

• Romantic relationships unfold across digital platforms, where expressions of affection and digital surveillance interact with attachment styles to shape adolescent experiences.

• Social comparison on social media can lead to body dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem, especially during early and middle adolescence when peer approval is highly valued.

• Mental health impacts of social media vary by user and context, with problematic use linked to anxiety and depression, and intentional use offering support and mood regulation.

• Differential susceptibility refers to the idea that social media affects adolescents differently depending on personal traits, developmental stage, and the type of content consumed.

• Active versus passive use matters: actively posting and engaging with supportive communities tends to promote wellbeing, while passive scrolling can worsen emotional outcomes.

• Social media influencers shape adolescent health behaviours by modelling actions, sharing health-related content, and forming parasocial bonds that increase message credibility.

• Parasocial relationships are one-sided emotional connections adolescents form with influencers, enhancing trust and making health messaging more persuasive—positively or negatively.

• Health education via influencers is a double-edged sword, capable of raising awareness and promoting wellbeing but also reinforcing unrealistic ideals or harmful behaviours.