history final study guide
In-Depth Notes on the French Revolution and Enlightenment
The Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
Scientific Discoveries: During the Renaissance, scientists identified natural laws governing the world.
Philosophes' Inquiry: Enlightenment thinkers (philosophes) began to explore if these natural laws also applied to human institutions, particularly governments.
Secular Thinking: Philosophes encouraged the use of reason and logic rather than religious doctrine to understand government formation.
Critique of Absolute Monarchy: They challenged the concept of the divine right of kings, which asserted that monarchs derived their authority directly from God and could not be questioned.
Long-term Causes of the French Revolution
Absolutism: A socio-political system that represented an unjust Old Regime that led to widespread dissatisfaction.
Economic Hardship: Poor harvests resulted in many peasant farmers being unable to pay taxes, exacerbating discontent.
Influence of Enlightenment Ideas: Enlightenment philosophes inspired revolutionary thinking among the populace.
Financial Crisis: The monarchy faced a severe deficit, worsened by costly wars, including aid to the American Revolution.
Mercantilism Issues: The mercantile system restricted trade, leading to economic frustration.
Other Revolution Influences: The successes of the Glorious Revolution in England (1688-1689) and the American Revolution (1775-1783) inspired revolutionary ideas in France.
Preparing for the Estates-General
Call by Louis XVI: The Estates-General was convened in Winter 1788-1789 to address the financial crisis.
Cahiers: These were traditional lists of grievances presented by the people to propose moderate reforms.
France's Bankruptcy
Luxurious Spending: King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette's extravagant lifestyles drained the monarchy's finances.
Deficit Spending: The government spent more money than it collected in taxes, worsening the financial crisis.
Tax Resistance: The privileged classes (nobles and clergy) resisted taxation, further crippling the state’s financial situation.
Monarchical Control
Intendants: The king appointed intendants to govern the districts and enforce tax collections and laws.
Judicial and Military Control: The monarchy oversaw justice and military operations, often arresting citizens without due process via lettres de cachet (blank arrest warrants).
Divine Right of Kings
Monarchical Belief: The belief that monarchs were chosen by God, thus their authority could not be questioned.
Blasphemy: To challenge a monarch was deemed as questioning God's will, and such actions were considered blasphemous.
Society under the Old Regime
**Three Estates:
First Estate: High-ranking clergy; privileged class
Second Estate: Nobility; privileged class
Third Estate: Everyone else, including peasants to wealthy bourgeoisie; unprivileged class
Economic Conditions
Agricultural Economy: France relied on agriculture, which was vulnerable to poor harvests.
Tax Burden on Peasants: Peasant farmers bore the highest taxation, struggling to meet their obligations during difficult times.
Bourgeoisie Discontent: Though some bourgeoisie became wealthier, they resented paying taxes unlike the nobles.
The Abolishment of the Monarchy
Monarchy Abolished: The Convention abolished the monarchy; Louis XVI was executed on January 21, 1793, followed by Marie Antoinette on October 16, 1793.
Impacts on the Royal Family: Their children faced dire fates, with Louis XVI's son mistreated until his death and daughter Marie-Thérèse exiled.
End of Special Privileges
Seizing Church Lands: Real property of the church was confiscated and redistributed to peasants.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Required election of church officials by the people and established government-paid salaries.
Abolition of Feudal Dues: All privileges of the First and Second Estates were eliminated, instigating social change.
Reforms in Local Government
Decentralization: The previous system was replaced with 83 departments governed by elected officials.
Judicial Reform: New courts were established with judges elected by the local populace.
Declaration of the Rights of Man
Core Principles: Ensured rights like freedom of religion, speech, press, property rights, and the foundation of law where sovereignty resides in the people.
Motto: "Liberty, equality, fraternity!"
Tennis Court Oath (June 1789)
Mobilization of the Third Estate: The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and vowed to draft a constitution after being locked out of regular meetings.
Convention (1792-1795)
First French Republic: Established during this period amidst external threats from various European powers opposed to the revolution.
Internal Conflicts: Moderates (Girondists) vs. radicals (Jacobin leaders) like Marat and Robespierre, reflected the struggle within revolutionary politics.
Four Phases of the French Revolution
National Assembly (1789-1791)
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
Convention (1792-1795)
Directory (1795-1799)
Uprising in Paris (July 14, 1789)
Storming the Bastille: Marked a significant revolt against royal authority, where revolutionaries captured weapons.
Formation of the Commune: Parisians formed a local government leading to widespread uprisings across France, targeting nobles and destroying tax records.
Émigrés: Many nobles fled in expectation of a restoration of the old regime, becoming known as émigrés.
Symbol of Revolution: The capture of the Bastille symbolized the uprising's resistance against tyranny.
1. A Time of Creativity and Change in Europe Renaissance - Rebirth I. The Renaissance Where is All Begin
o Italy
o Why Italy?
§ Nostalgia for Ancient Rome
§ The New availability of Ancient Greek and Roman writings (aided by fall off Constantinople)
§ Italian Merchants had money because of the increase of trade for the Crusades
The Medici Family
o Rich banking family from Florence
o Cosimo de’ Medici gained control of the city-state government and the Medici family controlled it for years
o Patrons- Financial supporters of the arts.
Humanism
o An intellectual movement during the Renaissance
o Focused on worldly subjects rather than religious issues
§ Life can be better in the here and now.
§ A recognition of the abilities that man possess and cultivate action of those abilities. (Individualism)
§ A love of classic literature
Considered the height of renaissance were the paintings, sculptures, and architecture of the time.
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II. The Renaissance Art Architecture
o Rejection of the Gothic style as cluttered and disorganized
o Adopted the columns, arches, and domes of the Greeks and Romans.
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)
o Commissioned by the Medici’s to create a church in Florence (Il Duomo Cathedral)
o Studied the parthenon in Rome and used a ribbed design to internally support the dome of the cathedral.
Donatello (1386-1466)
o Know for his use of 3 dimensions, expressions, and realism in his sculptures
o The Bronze Sculpture of David
Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)
o Only 17 paintings
§ Mona Lisa
§ Last Supper
§ Madonna of the Rocks
o Notebooks
§ Drawing of unfinished works
§ Used science to support art
§ Coded and Read R-L with a mirror
Technology
o Hydraulics
o Principles of turbine
o Vehicles on land
o Parachutes
o Cartography
o Submarine
o Flying Machines
o Architecture
o Scientific Method
Renaissance man
o A Broad Knowledge about many things in different fields
o Deep knowledge of skill in one area
o Able to tie together or see the reaction in different areas and create new knowledge
Michaelangelo (1475-1564)
o Sculptures
§ Pieta
§ David
o Painting
§ Sistine Chapel
o Architect
o Poet
Raphael (1483-1520)
o Studied the worlds of Michelangelo and Da Vinci
o Chosen as an Architect for St. Peters Basilica
o Works include paintings of the Madonna and The School of Athens which included himself, Michelangelo with Socrates and Plato
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III. Renaissance Literature Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
o Florence
o “The Prince”
§ Less concerned about high ideals
§ Written from a secular standpoint
§ How to get power and hold on to that power
§ Appearances are sometimes more important than actuality
§ “Machiavellian Politics”
Erasmus (1466-1536)
o Dutch Humanist
o Attacked corruption in the church using satire. (The praise of Folly)
o Pushed for translations of the Bible into everyday venacular.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
o The most famous writer of this period.
o 37 Plays
§ Tragedies
§ Hamlet, Romeo & Juliet, McBeth
§ Comedies
§ Midsummer Nights Dream, Twelfth Night
§ History
§ Julius Caesar, Richard III
§ Added 1000’s of words to the English Language
§ Poems
Miguel De Cervantes (1547-1616)
o Don Quixote
§ A foolish but idealistic knight.
§ Mocked the romantic notions of chivalry
Clovis and the Franks
Clovis developed the Franks into one of the strongest Germanic tribes in Europe.
Baptized in 481 A.D. and integrated Christianity into Frankish customs.
II. Germanic Tribes at the Fall of Rome
Tribes: Celts, Jutes, Thuringians, Vandals, and Avars.
Lacked cities and written laws; ruled by unwritten customs and elected kings.
III. Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire
Charles the Great (747-814 A.D.), reigned for 46 years.
Grandson of Charles Martel.
Crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III in 800 A.D.
Expanded the Frankish kingdom across present-day Spain, Germany, and Italy.
The Carolingian Renaissance emphasized art, education, and preservation of Greco-Roman culture.
Introduced lowercase letters to Latin.
Established the Missi Domenici to maintain order and justice.
IV. Battle of Tours (732 A.D.)
Conflict between the Franks (Charles Martel) and Islamic Moors (Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi).
Frankish victory despite being outnumbered.
Martel strategically neutralized the Islamic cavalry, stopping the Islamic advance into Europe.
V. Break-up of Charlemagne's Empire
Reasons for the Decline:
Lack of an effective tax system.
Poor communication made law enforcement difficult.
The German tradition of dividing land among sons.
Attacks from Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims.
Treaty of Verdun (843 A.D.):
Divided the empire into three parts:
Western Frankish Kingdom (France)
Eastern Frankish Kingdom (Germany)
Lotharingia (Lothar II)
VI. Feudalism Overview
Loosely organized system where powerful lords divided land among vassals.
A fief was an estate given to a vassal from a lord.
Lords often held more power than kings.
Give & Take of Feudalism
Lords' Responsibilities:
Protect vassals and serfs.
Provide a court system.
Vassals' Agreements:
Provide military service.
Pay taxes.
Give shelter, entertainment, and food.
VII. Manorial System
Agricultural economy based on self-sufficient estates (manors).
Serfs worked the land but were not slaves.
Typical medieval manor included fields, a village, and a lord’s estate.
VIII. Knights and Chivalry
Knights were mounted warriors trained from childhood.
Progression: Page → Squire → Knight.
Participated in tournaments when warfare declined.
Followed a strict Code of Chivalry.
IX. The Christian Church After the Fall of Rome
Division into Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic.
Became the most powerful secular force in Western Europe.
The Pope ruled the Papal States in central Italy.
X. Agricultural Revolution
New farming technologies:
Windmills
Heavy iron plows
Harnesses
Three-field system
Increased food production, leading to a population doubling between 1000 and 1300.
XI. Revival in Trade
Increased population created demand for goods unavailable on manors.
Merchants traveled across Europe, selling goods at trade fairs.
Regular trade routes were established.
Peasants exchanged goods and produce for crafts and luxury items.
Noblemen and clergy bought silk, sugar, and fine woolens.
XII. Development of Medieval Towns
Merchants wintered near castles or bishops' palaces, leading to town formation.
Charters established town rights and privileges.
Towns lacked sanitation and were crowded and unsightly.
XIII. Commercial Revolution
Money use reemerged as lords needed it for fine goods.
Serfs sold excess farm products and began paying rent.
Banking services developed.
A middle class of traders, artisans, and merchants arose.
XIV. Guilds in Medieval Towns
Merchant and craft associations controlled trade and regulations.
Passed laws, levied taxes, and regulated workers in specific trades.
Apprentice System:
Apprentice (7-8 years old): Paid with bed and board.
Journeyman (after ~7 years): Some pay but no master status.
Master Craftsman: Only a few reached this level.
XV. Time Periods of the Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages (476-1000 A.D.)
High Middle Ages (1000-1250 A.D.)
Late Middle Ages (1250-1450 A.D.)
. Pre-Contact North American Native Societies
Key Characteristics:
Varied environmental adaptations (e.g., desert, forest, plains).
Use of natural resources for food, shelter, and tools.
Diverse languages and cultural practices.
Examples:
Anasazi (Pueblo): Cliff dwellings, agriculture in arid conditions.
Mississippian: Mound-building, trade networks.
2. Olmec and Mayan Civilizations
Olmec (1500–400 BCE):
Known as the "Mother Culture" of Mesoamerica.
Achievements: Colossal stone heads, early writing system, calendar development.
Economy: Agricultural surplus, trade of jade and obsidian.
Religion: Polytheistic, worship of jaguar deities.
Mayan (2000 BCE–1500 CE):
City-states like Tikal and Chichen Itza.
Achievements: Advanced mathematics, astronomy, complex writing system.
Economy: Trade, agriculture (maize, beans, cacao).
Religion: Rituals, pyramids as temples.
3. Features of Early Civilizations
8 Features of Civilization:
Cities
Government
Religion
Social structure
Writing
Art and architecture
Job specialization
Public works
Examples:
Egypt: Pharaohs, pyramids, hieroglyphics.
Mesopotamia (Kush): Ziggurats, Hammurabi’s Code, cuneiform.
4. Legacy of Greek Thought, Culture, and Government
Contributions:
Philosophy: Socratic method, works of Plato and Aristotle.
Government: Foundation of democracy (Athens).
Science and Medicine: Hippocratic Oath, Euclidean geometry.
Arts: Classical architecture (columns), drama (tragedy and comedy).
5. Large Regional Empires in Mesopotamia and Anatolia
Hittites (1600–1180 BCE):
Ironworking technology.
Military innovations (chariots).
Assyrians (900–609 BCE):
Strong military, use of siege tactics.
Library of Ashurbanipal.
Babylon (1894–539 BCE):
Hammurabi’s Code: Early law system.
Hanging Gardens (one of the Seven Wonders).
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE):
Cyrus the Great: Tolerance of cultures.
Darius: Royal Road, efficient administration.
6. Longevity of the Byzantine Empire
Factors for Survival:
Strategic location: Constantinople as a trade hub.
Strong military: Use of Greek fire.
Cultural cohesion: Orthodox Christianity.
Legal and administrative systems: Justinian’s Code.
7. Cultural Characteristics and Contributions of Islamic Civilization
Key Characteristics:
Golden Age (8th–13th centuries): Advances in science, mathematics, medicine.
Contributions:
Algebra and Arabic numerals.
Preservation of Greek and Roman texts.
Architectural achievements: Mosques (e.g., Dome of the Rock).
Literature: Works like The Thousand and One Nights.
Trade networks connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Colonialism vs. Imperialism
Colonialism: Setting up colonies and exercising direct control over areas.
Imperialism:
No longer primarily about establishing colonies or direct control.
Driven mostly by economic motives.
Involves possession or control of an area for economic gain.
Characterized by spheres of influence and extraterritoriality rather than colonial settlement.
Involved many industrialized nations, including Europe, the United States, and Japan.
Imperialism
Began around 1875.
A renewed race for colonies spurred by the Industrial Revolution's demands.
Motivations:
New markets for finished goods.
New sources of raw materials.
Nationalism: Colonies equated to economic and political power.
Interlude: Late 1700s - Late 1800s
Europeans were mainly focused on events within Europe and existing European colonies.
Key events:
American Revolution
French Revolution
Napoleonic Wars
Latin American Wars for Independence
Industrial Revolution
Colonialism Speeds Up
Age of Exploration: Europeans competed for overseas colonies.
Growth of European commerce and trade worldwide.
Commercial Revolution ensued.
Economic Motives for Imperialism
Markets for Finished Goods: Such as British Industrial Revolution products sold in China and India.
Sources of Raw Materials:
Egypt: cotton
Malaya: rubber and tin
Middle East: oil
Capital Investments: Profits from the Industrial Revolution were invested in mines and railroads in unindustrialized areas.
Political Motives for Imperialism
Nationalism: national pride.
"The sun never sets on the British empire."
Large empires increased national pride.
Influence over areas of the world to protect national interests.
Military Motives for Imperialism
Bases: British naval bases in Aden, Alexandria, Cyprus, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
Manpower: British Indian Sepoys and French North African troops.
Social Motives for Imperialism
Surplus population: Examples include Japanese in Korea and Italians in Africa.
"White Man's Burden":
The idea, popularized by Rudyard Kipling, that white people were morally obligated to bring the "blessings of civilization" to "backward" peoples.
Religious Motives for Imperialism
Conversion to Christianity was a key goal.
Fueled by an end-of-the-century crusading spirit.
Missionaries operated in Africa, Asia, Hawaii, etc.
Justifications for Imperialism
Social Darwinism: Interpreted Darwin's evolutionary theory in terms of powerful nations.
"Only the strong survive."
Powerful nations were seen as capable of developing areas and resources being "wasted" by native peoples.
Racism: Increased feelings of white and Japanese superiority.
Imperialism: Standards
Explain factors that contributed to European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Explain the significance of nationalism in Europe during the 19th century.
Origins of the Nazi Party
Adolf Hitler, bitter after World War I, joined a German workers' party.
This party became the National Socialist German Workers' Party, known as the Nazis.
Hitler was a brilliant public speaker who spelled out the Nazi programs in his speeches.
Build-up to the Third Reich
Economic Depression of 1929:
6 million Germans were unemployed.
Hitler promised to rebuild the economy.
He denounced the Treaty of Versailles.
By 1932, the Nazi party was the most powerful political party in Germany.
Hitler became Chancellor in 1933.
Nazi Beliefs
Outlined in "Mein Kampf."
The German people had been separated into warring social classes for too long, and by eliminating the differences between the rich and poor, Germany could be strong and united.
Defeat in WWI and other issues were blamed on Jews and Communists, not the German people.
Blond, blue-eyed members of the Aryan or German race were considered superior.
Strong central leadership (Dictator) was deemed necessary.
The Third Reich
Hitler persuaded German President Paul von Hindenburg to suspend all German civil rights.
Using false promises and violence, he got the Reichstag (parliament) to give him the power to make all laws without their consent.
In June 1934, all members of the military had to swear personal allegiance to Hitler.
After Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler abolished the office of President.
Hitler declared himself Führer (supreme leader) of the German Empire, known as The Third Reich.
The Third Reich (Continued)
Hitler became a totalitarian dictator.
He began to invade nearby lands, starting with the Rhineland (eastern border with France).
France and England did not take action.
He formed an alliance with Italy in 1936, creating the Axis Powers.
Adolf Hitler: Background
Wanted to be an artist, but his father wanted him in public service.
After his father died, he dropped out of high school and was denied entry into an art academy.
WWI veteran: Was a victim of mustard gas.