Untitled Flashcards Set

Forms and functions of the four classes of biological macromolecules:

1. Carbohydrates: Energy storage and structure; monomers are monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).

2. Proteins: Enzymes, structure, signaling; monomers are amino acids.

3. Lipids: Energy storage, membranes, signaling; no true monomers (fatty acids, glycerol).

4. Nucleic Acids: Store genetic information; monomers are nucleotides (e.g., DNA, RNA).

Digestive system - alimentary canal and accessory organs:

• Alimentary canal: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines (processes food).

• Accessory organs: Liver, pancreas, gallbladder (aid digestion).
  Food processing stages: Ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination.

Getting energy to cells:

• Digestive system breaks down food into nutrients.

• Circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen.

• Cellular respiration in mitochondria produces ATP.

Cellular respiration process:

1. Glycolysis (cytoplasm): Glucose → Pyruvate, ATP.

2. Krebs Cycle (mitochondria): Pyruvate → CO2, ATP, carriers.

3. Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria): ATP from carriers, oxygen → water.

Aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration:

• Aerobic: Requires oxygen, produces more ATP.

• Anaerobic (fermentation): No oxygen, less ATP, produces lactate or alcohol.

Structural hierarchy of the human body systems:

1. Cells → 2. Tissues → 3. Organs → 4. Organ systems → 5. Body.
   Types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Immune system malfunction and diabetes:

• Autoimmune attack on insulin-producing cells in pancreas → Type 1 diabetes.

Endocrine system organs and hormones:

• Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries/testes.

• Hormones regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction.

Blood glucose regulation and diabetes:

• Insulin lowers blood glucose; glucagon raises it.

• Diabetes: Insulin issues → high blood sugar.

Types of diabetes:

1. Type 1: Autoimmune, no insulin production.

2. Type 2: Insulin resistance.

3. Gestational: During pregnancy.

Respiratory system - gas exchange:

• Organs: Lungs, trachea, bronchi, alveoli.

• Oxygen diffuses into blood; CO2 diffuses out.

Circulatory system - transport:

• Organs: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries).

• Function: Transport oxygen, nutrients, remove waste.

Issues with the circulatory system:

• Blocked arteries, high blood pressure, heart failure.

Importance of fats/lipids:

• Energy storage, cell membranes, hormone production.

Cholesterol (LDL vs. HDL):

• LDL: Bad, clogs arteries.

• HDL: Good, removes excess cholesterol.

Saturated vs. unsaturated fats:

• Saturated: Solid, less healthy.

• Unsaturated: Liquid, heart-healthy.

Reasons for cell division:

• Growth, repair, reproduction.

Sexual vs. asexual reproduction:

• Sexual: Two parents, genetic variation.

• Asexual: One parent, identical offspring.

Chromosome structure and function:

• DNA + proteins, carry genetic information.

Cell cycle events:

1. Interphase: Growth, DNA replication.

2. Mitosis: Division of nucleus.

3. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

Cancer origins:

• Mutations in DNA → Uncontrolled cell growth.

Lymphocytes (B cells, T cells):

• B cells: Produce antibodies.

• T cells: Destroy infected cells.

Antibiotics in bacteria:

• Disrupt cell walls, protein synthesis, or DNA replication.

Natural selection process:

• Traits improving survival/reproduction → passed on.

Evidence of evolution:

• Fossils, homologous structures, genetic similarities.

Artificial selection example:

• Breeding dogs for specific traits.

Gene transfer in bacteria:

• Conjugation, transformation, transduction.

Antibiotic resistance:

• Random mutations, gene transfer → resistant bacteria survive.

Viruses not alive because:

• No cells, cannot reproduce without a host.

Virus structure:

• Protein coat, genetic material (DNA/RNA).

Lytic vs. lysogenic cycles:

• Lytic: Immediate replication, destroys host.

• Lysogenic: Dormant, integrates into host DNA.

Human immune system defenses:

1. Physical barriers.

2. Inflammatory response.

3. White blood cells.

4. Antibodies.

Examples of external barriers:

• Skin, mucus, tears.

Vaccines and immune system:

• Trigger memory cell production, protect against viruses.

Virus evolution impact on vaccines:

• Mutations → reduced vaccine effectiveness.

Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II:

• Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.

• Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate.

Nondisjunction effect:

• Extra/missing chromosomes → disorders like Down syndrome.

Inheritance patterns:

• Mendelian: Dominant/recessive.

• Non-Mendelian: Codominance, incomplete dominance, polygenic traits.

Protein synthesis process:

1. Transcription: DNA → mRNA in nucleus.

2. Translation: mRNA → protein in ribosome.

DNA replication:

• Semi-conservative: Each new DNA has one old and one new strand.

PCR and crime scene analysis:

• Amplifies DNA; used in DNA profiling.

Carbon footprint reduction:

• Use less energy, recycle, eat sustainably.

Got it! I’ll reformat your answers to match the same concise and uniform style. Here’s the revised version of your notes:

List several characteristics common to living organisms that distinguish them from non-living things.

ability to carry life; movement; respiration; responsiveness to environment

Explain the similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

prokaryotic; larger, lack nucleus, alive, cell membrane w/ DNA, divide
eukaryotic; smaller, have nucleus, alive, cell membrane w/ DNA, divide

List the differences between plant and animal eukaryotic cells.

animal cells; centrosome, lysosomes
plant cells; cell wall, chloroplasts, plastids

Label the major organelles of both plant and animal cells as well as describe each’s function.

nucleus; controls cellular activities, DNA
mitochondria; powerhouse of the cell
endoplasmic reticulum; protein and lipid synthesis
golgi apparatus; processes, packages, transports proteins/lipids
ribosome; protein synthesis
cytoplasm; gel-like substance that fills the cell
cell membrane; regulates passage of substances
vacuole; stores water, nutrients, waste

List the two types of moving appendages found in cells and give an example of each.

flagella; whip-like tail, sperm cells
cilia; short, eyelash-like filaments, ciliophora

Describe the basic structure of atoms and how they participate in reactions essential to life.

protons, neutrons, electrons; energy transfer, homeostasis, biological molecule formation

Differentiate between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions as processes of metabolism.

dehydration synthesis; removes water to bind monomers
hydrolysis; adds water to break polymers into monomers